Fundamentals of SARS-CoV-2 Biosensors

A special issue of Biosensors (ISSN 2079-6374). This special issue belongs to the section "Biosensors and Healthcare".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (31 July 2022) | Viewed by 54942

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Guest Editor
Laboratory of Optics, Instituto Politécnico Nacional, Mexico City 07738, Mexico
Interests: optics; nonlinear optics; interferometry; spectroscopy; biosensors; instrumentation of biosignals; biophotonics; nanotechnology; signal processing; artificial intelligence
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Guest Editor
Escuela Nacional de Ciencias Biológicas, Instituto Politécnico Nacional, Mexico City 11340, Mexico
Interests: biosensors; biosignals; confocal microscopy; plasmonics; fluorescence; nanosciences; microbiology; virology; immunology; authophagy
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

This Special Issue, entitled “Fundamentals of SARS-CoV-2 biosensors”, has been devoted to one of the more dynamic battlefields for sensor technology in our era. Biosensors have been driven for the widespread diagnosis and treatment of COVID-19. Coronavirus identification by chemical and physical biosignals represents an urgent topic of scientific research, with explosive progress for screening and evaluating its potential action in biological parameters. Biosensors are between the most evocative members of the family of the modern world of technology. Original or review papers describing new opportunities for revealing the activation or inhibition of coronavirus threatening biological systems are welcome.

Dr. Carlos Torres-Torres
Dr. Blanca Estela García-Pérez
Guest Editors

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Keywords

  • COVID-19 detection
  • SARS-COV-2
  • biosensors
  • biosignals
  • nanotechnology
  • instrumentation systems
  • signal processing
  • optics
  • virology
  • immunology

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Published Papers (13 papers)

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Editorial

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3 pages, 198 KiB  
Editorial
Fundamentals of SARS-CoV-2 Biosensors
by Carlos Torres-Torres and Blanca Estela García-Pérez
Biosensors 2022, 12(10), 880; https://doi.org/10.3390/bios12100880 - 17 Oct 2022
Viewed by 1377
Abstract
A beautiful topic in its essence and content is represented by the powerful assistance of sensing methods and techniques for automatically revealing biological agents and biological functions in this era [...] Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Fundamentals of SARS-CoV-2 Biosensors)

Research

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15 pages, 2228 KiB  
Article
A Rapid and Sensitive Microfluidics-Based Tool for Seroprevalence Immunity Assessment of COVID-19 and Vaccination-Induced Humoral Antibody Response at the Point of Care
by Kritika Srinivasan Rajsri, Michael P. McRae, Glennon W. Simmons, Nicolaos J. Christodoulides, Hanover Matz, Helen Dooley, Akiko Koide, Shohei Koide and John T. McDevitt
Biosensors 2022, 12(8), 621; https://doi.org/10.3390/bios12080621 - 10 Aug 2022
Cited by 7 | Viewed by 3183
Abstract
As of 8 August 2022, SARS-CoV-2, the causative agent of COVID-19, has infected over 585 million people and resulted in more than 6.42 million deaths worldwide. While approved SARS-CoV-2 spike (S) protein-based vaccines induce robust seroconversion in most individuals, dramatically reducing disease severity [...] Read more.
As of 8 August 2022, SARS-CoV-2, the causative agent of COVID-19, has infected over 585 million people and resulted in more than 6.42 million deaths worldwide. While approved SARS-CoV-2 spike (S) protein-based vaccines induce robust seroconversion in most individuals, dramatically reducing disease severity and the risk of hospitalization, poorer responses are observed in aged, immunocompromised individuals and patients with certain pre-existing health conditions. Further, it is difficult to predict the protection conferred through vaccination or previous infection against new viral variants of concern (VoC) as they emerge. In this context, a rapid quantitative point-of-care (POC) serological assay able to quantify circulating anti-SARS-CoV-2 antibodies would allow clinicians to make informed decisions on the timing of booster shots, permit researchers to measure the level of cross-reactive antibody against new VoC in a previously immunized and/or infected individual, and help assess appropriate convalescent plasma donors, among other applications. Utilizing a lab-on-a-chip ecosystem, we present proof of concept, optimization, and validation of a POC strategy to quantitate COVID-19 humoral protection. This platform covers the entire diagnostic timeline of the disease, seroconversion, and vaccination response spanning multiple doses of immunization in a single POC test. Our results demonstrate that this platform is rapid (~15 min) and quantitative for SARS-CoV-2-specific IgG detection. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Fundamentals of SARS-CoV-2 Biosensors)
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10 pages, 2375 KiB  
Article
Measurements of Anti-SARS-CoV-2 Antibody Levels after Vaccination Using a SH-SAW Biosensor
by Chia-Hsuan Cheng, Yu-Chi Peng, Shu-Min Lin, Hiromi Yatsuda, Szu-Heng Liu, Shih-Jen Liu, Chen-Yen Kuo and Robert Y. L. Wang
Biosensors 2022, 12(8), 599; https://doi.org/10.3390/bios12080599 - 4 Aug 2022
Cited by 7 | Viewed by 3215
Abstract
To prevent the COVID-19 pandemic that threatens human health, vaccination has become a useful and necessary tool in the response to the pandemic. The vaccine not only induces antibodies in the body, but may also cause adverse effects such as fatigue, muscle pain, [...] Read more.
To prevent the COVID-19 pandemic that threatens human health, vaccination has become a useful and necessary tool in the response to the pandemic. The vaccine not only induces antibodies in the body, but may also cause adverse effects such as fatigue, muscle pain, blood clots, and myocarditis, especially in patients with chronic disease. To reduce unnecessary vaccinations, it is becoming increasingly important to monitor the amount of anti-SARS-CoV-2 S protein antibodies prior to vaccination. A novel SH-SAW biosensor, coated with SARS-CoV-2 spike protein, can help quantify the amount of anti-SARS-CoV-2 S protein antibodies with 5 μL of finger blood within 40 s. The LoD of the spike-protein-coated SAW biosensor was determined to be 41.91 BAU/mL, and the cut-off point was determined to be 50 BAU/mL (Youden’s J statistic = 0.94733). By using the SH-SAW biosensor, we found that the total anti-SARS-CoV-2 S protein antibody concentrations spiked 10–14 days after the first vaccination (p = 0.0002) and 7–9 days after the second vaccination (p = 0.0116). Furthermore, mRNA vaccines, such as Moderna or BNT, could achieve higher concentrations of total anti-SARS-CoV-2 S protein antibodies compared with adenovirus vaccine, AZ (p < 0.0001). SH-SAW sensors in vitro diagnostic systems are a simple and powerful technology to investigate the local prevalence of COVID-19. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Fundamentals of SARS-CoV-2 Biosensors)
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17 pages, 4840 KiB  
Article
Asymmetric Mach–Zehnder Interferometric Biosensing for Quantitative and Sensitive Multiplex Detection of Anti-SARS-CoV-2 Antibodies in Human Plasma
by Geert Besselink, Anke Schütz-Trilling, Janneke Veerbeek, Michelle Verbruggen, Adriaan van der Meer, Rens Schonenberg, Henk Dam, Kevin Evers, Ernst Lindhout, Anja Garritsen, Aart van Amerongen, Wout Knoben and Luc Scheres
Biosensors 2022, 12(8), 553; https://doi.org/10.3390/bios12080553 - 22 Jul 2022
Cited by 10 | Viewed by 4215
Abstract
The Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) pandemic has once more emphasized the urgent need for accurate and fast point-of-care (POC) diagnostics for outbreak control and prevention. The main challenge in the development of POC in vitro diagnostics (IVD) is to combine [...] Read more.
The Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) pandemic has once more emphasized the urgent need for accurate and fast point-of-care (POC) diagnostics for outbreak control and prevention. The main challenge in the development of POC in vitro diagnostics (IVD) is to combine a short time to result with a high sensitivity, and to keep the testing cost-effective. In this respect, sensors based on photonic integrated circuits (PICs) may offer advantages as they have features such as a high analytical sensitivity, capability for multiplexing, ease of miniaturization, and the potential for high-volume manufacturing. One special type of PIC sensor is the asymmetric Mach–Zehnder Interferometer (aMZI), which is characterized by a high and tunable analytical sensitivity. The current work describes the application of an aMZI-based biosensor platform for sensitive and multiplex detection of anti-SARS-CoV-2 antibodies in human plasma samples using the spike protein (SP), the receptor-binding domain (RBD), and the nucleocapsid protein (NP) as target antigens. The results are in good agreement with several CE-IVD marked reference methods and demonstrate the potential of the aMZI biosensor technology for further development into a photonic IVD platform. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Fundamentals of SARS-CoV-2 Biosensors)
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10 pages, 1236 KiB  
Article
Rapid Detection of Anti-SARS-CoV-2 Antibodies with a Screen-Printed Electrode Modified with a Spike Glycoprotein Epitope
by Wilson A. Ameku, David W. Provance, Carlos M. Morel and Salvatore G. De-Simone
Biosensors 2022, 12(5), 272; https://doi.org/10.3390/bios12050272 - 26 Apr 2022
Cited by 10 | Viewed by 2728
Abstract
Background: The coronavirus disease of 2019 (COVID-19) is caused by an infection with severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). It was recognized in late 2019 and has since spread worldwide, leading to a pandemic with unprecedented health and financial consequences. There remains [...] Read more.
Background: The coronavirus disease of 2019 (COVID-19) is caused by an infection with severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). It was recognized in late 2019 and has since spread worldwide, leading to a pandemic with unprecedented health and financial consequences. There remains an enormous demand for new diagnostic methods that can deliver fast, low-cost, and easy-to-use confirmation of a SARS-CoV-2 infection. We have developed an affordable electrochemical biosensor for the rapid detection of serological immunoglobulin G (IgG) antibody in sera against the spike protein. Materials and Methods: A previously identified linear B-cell epitope (EP) specific to the SARS-CoV-2 spike glycoprotein and recognized by IgG in patient sera was selected for the target molecule. After synthesis, the EP was immobilized onto the surface of the working electrode of a commercially available screen-printed electrode (SPE). The capture of SARS-CoV-2-specific IgGs allowed the formation of an immunocomplex that was measured by square-wave voltammetry from its generation of hydroquinone (HQ). Results: An evaluation of the performance of the EP-based biosensor presented a selectivity and specificity for COVID-19 of 93% and 100%, respectively. No cross-reaction was observed to antibodies against other diseases that included Chagas disease, Chikungunya, Leishmaniosis, and Dengue. Differentiation of infected and non-infected individuals was possible even at a high dilution factor that decreased the required sample volumes to a few microliters. Conclusion: The final device proved suitable for diagnosing COVID-19 by assaying actual serum samples, and the results displayed good agreement with the molecular biology diagnoses. The flexibility to conjugate other EPs to SPEs suggests that this technology could be rapidly adapted to diagnose new variants of SARS-CoV-2 or other pathogens. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Fundamentals of SARS-CoV-2 Biosensors)
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9 pages, 4573 KiB  
Communication
Latex Microsphere-Based Bicolor Immunochromatography for Qualitative Detection of Neutralizing Antibody against SARS-CoV-2
by Zhanwei Liang, Tao Peng, Xueshima Jiao, Yang Zhao, Jie Xie, You Jiang, Bo Meng, Xiang Fang, Xiaoping Yu and Xinhua Dai
Biosensors 2022, 12(2), 103; https://doi.org/10.3390/bios12020103 - 7 Feb 2022
Cited by 11 | Viewed by 4630
Abstract
Neutralizing antibody (NAb) is a family of antibodies with special functions, which afford a degree of protection against infection and/or reduce the risk of clinically severe infection. Receptor binding domain (RBD) in the spike protein of SARS-CoV-2, a portion of the S1 subunit, [...] Read more.
Neutralizing antibody (NAb) is a family of antibodies with special functions, which afford a degree of protection against infection and/or reduce the risk of clinically severe infection. Receptor binding domain (RBD) in the spike protein of SARS-CoV-2, a portion of the S1 subunit, can stimulate the immune system to produce NAb after infection and vaccination. The detection of NAb against SARS-CoV-2 is a simple and direct approach for evaluating a vaccine’s effectiveness. In this study, a direct, rapid, and point-of-care bicolor lateral flow immunoassay (LFIA) was developed for NAb against SARS-CoV-2 detection without sample pretreatment, and which was based on the principle of NAb-mediated blockage of the interaction between RBD and angiotensin-converting enzyme 2. In the bicolor LFIA, red and blue latex microspheres (LMs) were used to locate the test and control lines, leading to avoidance of erroneous interpretations of one-colored line results. Under the optimal conditions, NAb against SARS-CoV-2 detection carried out using the bicolor LFIA could be completed within 9 min, and the visible limit of detection was about 48 ng/mL. Thirteen serum samples were analyzed, and the results showed that the NAb levels in three positive serum samples were equal to, or higher than, 736 ng/mL. The LM-based bicolor LFIA allows one-step, rapid, convenient, inexpensive, and user-friendly determination of NAb against SARS-CoV-2 in serum. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Fundamentals of SARS-CoV-2 Biosensors)
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10 pages, 3759 KiB  
Communication
Lateral Flow Immunoassay Coupled with Copper Enhancement for Rapid and Sensitive SARS-CoV-2 Nucleocapsid Protein Detection
by Tao Peng, Xueshima Jiao, Zhanwei Liang, Hongwei Zhao, Yang Zhao, Jie Xie, You Jiang, Xiaoping Yu, Xiang Fang and Xinhua Dai
Biosensors 2022, 12(1), 13; https://doi.org/10.3390/bios12010013 - 29 Dec 2021
Cited by 32 | Viewed by 3920
Abstract
The coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic caused by severe acute respiratory coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) is still raging all over the world. Hence, the rapid and sensitive screening of the suspected population is in high demand. The nucleocapsid protein (NP) of SARS-CoV-2 has been [...] Read more.
The coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic caused by severe acute respiratory coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) is still raging all over the world. Hence, the rapid and sensitive screening of the suspected population is in high demand. The nucleocapsid protein (NP) of SARS-CoV-2 has been selected as an ideal marker for viral antigen detection. This study describes a lateral flow immunoassay (LFIA) based on colloidal gold nanoparticles for rapid NP antigen detection, in which sensitivity was improved through copper deposition-induced signal amplification. The detection sensitivity of the developed LFIA for NP antigen detection (using certified reference materials) under the optimized parameters was 0.01 μg/mL and was promoted by three orders of magnitude to 10 pg/mL after copper deposition signal amplification. The LFIA coupled with the copper enhancement technique has many merits such as low cost, high efficiency, and high sensitivity. It provides an effective approach to the rapid screening, diagnosis, and monitoring of the suspected population in the COVID-19 outbreak. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Fundamentals of SARS-CoV-2 Biosensors)
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14 pages, 1999 KiB  
Article
Lateral Flow Immunoassay of SARS-CoV-2 Antigen with SERS-Based Registration: Development and Comparison with Traditional Immunoassays
by Kseniya V. Serebrennikova, Nadezhda A. Byzova, Anatoly V. Zherdev, Nikolai G. Khlebtsov, Boris N. Khlebtsov, Sergey F. Biketov and Boris B. Dzantiev
Biosensors 2021, 11(12), 510; https://doi.org/10.3390/bios11120510 - 10 Dec 2021
Cited by 28 | Viewed by 4620
Abstract
The current COVID-19 pandemic has increased the demand for pathogen detection methods that combine low detection limits with rapid results. Despite the significant progress in methods and devices for nucleic acid amplification, immunochemical methods are still preferred for mass testing without specialized laboratories [...] Read more.
The current COVID-19 pandemic has increased the demand for pathogen detection methods that combine low detection limits with rapid results. Despite the significant progress in methods and devices for nucleic acid amplification, immunochemical methods are still preferred for mass testing without specialized laboratories and highly qualified personnel. The most widely used immunoassays are microplate enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) with photometric detection and lateral flow immunoassay (LFIA) with visual results assessment. However, the disadvantage of ELISA is its considerable duration, and that of LFIA is its low sensitivity. In this study, the modified LFIA of a specific antigen of the causative agent of COVID-19, spike receptor-binding domain, was developed and characterized. This modified LFIA includes the use of gold nanoparticles with immobilized antibodies and 4-mercaptobenzoic acid as surface-enhanced Raman scattering (SERS) nanotag and registration of the nanotag binding by SERS spectrometry. To enhance the sensitivity of LFIA-SERS analysis, we determined the optimal compositions of SERS nanotags and membranes used in LFIA. For benchmark comparison, ELISA and conventional colorimetric LFIA were used with the same immune reagents. The proposed method combines a low detection limit of 0.1 ng/mL (at 0.4 ng/mL for ELISA and 1 ng/mL for qualitative LFIA) with a short assay time equal to 20 min (at 3.5 h for ELISA and 15 min for LFIA). The results obtained demonstrate the promise of using the SERS effects in membrane immuno-analytical systems. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Fundamentals of SARS-CoV-2 Biosensors)
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Review

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18 pages, 2153 KiB  
Review
Challenges in the Detection of SARS-CoV-2: Evolution of the Lateral Flow Immunoassay as a Valuable Tool for Viral Diagnosis
by Nayeli Shantal Castrejón-Jiménez, Blanca Estela García-Pérez, Nydia Edith Reyes-Rodríguez, Vicente Vega-Sánchez, Víctor Manuel Martínez-Juárez and Juan Carlos Hernández-González
Biosensors 2022, 12(9), 728; https://doi.org/10.3390/bios12090728 - 5 Sep 2022
Cited by 18 | Viewed by 4058
Abstract
SARS-CoV-2 is an emerging infectious disease of zoonotic origin that caused the coronavirus disease in late 2019 and triggered a pandemic that has severely affected human health and caused millions of deaths. Early and massive diagnosis of SARS-CoV-2 infected patients is the key [...] Read more.
SARS-CoV-2 is an emerging infectious disease of zoonotic origin that caused the coronavirus disease in late 2019 and triggered a pandemic that has severely affected human health and caused millions of deaths. Early and massive diagnosis of SARS-CoV-2 infected patients is the key to preventing the spread of the virus and controlling the outbreak. Lateral flow immunoassays (LFIA) are the simplest biosensors. These devices are clinical diagnostic tools that can detect various analytes, including viruses and antibodies, with high sensitivity and specificity. This review summarizes the advantages, limitations, and evolution of LFIA during the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic and the challenges of improving these diagnostic devices. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Fundamentals of SARS-CoV-2 Biosensors)
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30 pages, 2700 KiB  
Review
A Framework for Biosensors Assisted by Multiphoton Effects and Machine Learning
by Jose Alberto Arano-Martinez, Claudia Lizbeth Martínez-González, Ma Isabel Salazar and Carlos Torres-Torres
Biosensors 2022, 12(9), 710; https://doi.org/10.3390/bios12090710 - 1 Sep 2022
Cited by 49 | Viewed by 4232
Abstract
The ability to interpret information through automatic sensors is one of the most important pillars of modern technology. In particular, the potential of biosensors has been used to evaluate biological information of living organisms, and to detect danger or predict urgent situations in [...] Read more.
The ability to interpret information through automatic sensors is one of the most important pillars of modern technology. In particular, the potential of biosensors has been used to evaluate biological information of living organisms, and to detect danger or predict urgent situations in a battlefield, as in the invasion of SARS-CoV-2 in this era. This work is devoted to describing a panoramic overview of optical biosensors that can be improved by the assistance of nonlinear optics and machine learning methods. Optical biosensors have demonstrated their effectiveness in detecting a diverse range of viruses. Specifically, the SARS-CoV-2 virus has generated disturbance all over the world, and biosensors have emerged as a key for providing an analysis based on physical and chemical phenomena. In this perspective, we highlight how multiphoton interactions can be responsible for an enhancement in sensibility exhibited by biosensors. The nonlinear optical effects open up a series of options to expand the applications of optical biosensors. Nonlinearities together with computer tools are suitable for the identification of complex low-dimensional agents. Machine learning methods can approximate functions to reveal patterns in the detection of dynamic objects in the human body and determine viruses, harmful entities, or strange kinetics in cells. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Fundamentals of SARS-CoV-2 Biosensors)
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14 pages, 1911 KiB  
Review
Plasmonic Approaches for the Detection of SARS-CoV-2 Viral Particles
by Sabine Szunerits, Hiba Saada, Quentin Pagneux and Rabah Boukherroub
Biosensors 2022, 12(7), 548; https://doi.org/10.3390/bios12070548 - 21 Jul 2022
Cited by 9 | Viewed by 3003
Abstract
The ongoing highly contagious Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic, caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), underlines the fundamental position of diagnostic testing in outbreak control by allowing a distinction of the infected from the non-infected people. Diagnosis of COVID-19 remains [...] Read more.
The ongoing highly contagious Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic, caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), underlines the fundamental position of diagnostic testing in outbreak control by allowing a distinction of the infected from the non-infected people. Diagnosis of COVID-19 remains largely based on reverse transcription PCR (RT-PCR), identifying the genetic material of the virus. Molecular testing approaches have been largely proposed in addition to infectivity testing of patients via sensing the presence of viral particles of SARS-CoV-2 specific structural proteins, such as the spike glycoproteins (S1, S2) and the nucleocapsid (N) protein. While the S1 protein remains the main target for neutralizing antibody treatment upon infection and the focus of vaccine and therapeutic design, it has also become a major target for the development of point-of care testing (POCT) devices. This review will focus on the possibility of surface plasmon resonance (SPR)-based sensing platforms to convert the receptor-binding event of SARS-CoV-2 viral particles into measurable signals. The state-of-the-art SPR-based SARS-CoV-2 sensing devices will be provided, and highlights about the applicability of plasmonic sensors as POCT for virus particle as well as viral protein sensing will be discussed. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Fundamentals of SARS-CoV-2 Biosensors)
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20 pages, 1561 KiB  
Review
Microfluidics-Based Biosensing Platforms: Emerging Frontiers in Point-of-Care Testing SARS-CoV-2 and Seroprevalence
by Elda A. Flores-Contreras, Reyna Berenice González-González, Iram P. Rodríguez-Sánchez, Juan F. Yee-de León, Hafiz M. N. Iqbal and Everardo González-González
Biosensors 2022, 12(3), 179; https://doi.org/10.3390/bios12030179 - 17 Mar 2022
Cited by 13 | Viewed by 4421
Abstract
Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) caused the ongoing COVID-19 (coronavirus disease-2019) outbreak and has unprecedentedly impacted the public health and economic sector. The pandemic has forced researchers to focus on the accurate and early detection of SARS-CoV-2, developing novel diagnostic tests. [...] Read more.
Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) caused the ongoing COVID-19 (coronavirus disease-2019) outbreak and has unprecedentedly impacted the public health and economic sector. The pandemic has forced researchers to focus on the accurate and early detection of SARS-CoV-2, developing novel diagnostic tests. Among these, microfluidic-based tests stand out for their multiple benefits, such as their portability, low cost, and minimal reagents used. This review discusses the different microfluidic platforms applied in detecting SARS-CoV-2 and seroprevalence, classified into three sections according to the molecules to be detected, i.e., (1) nucleic acid, (2) antigens, and (3) anti-SARS-CoV-2 antibodies. Moreover, commercially available alternatives based on microfluidic platforms are described. Timely and accurate results allow healthcare professionals to perform efficient treatments and make appropriate decisions for infection control; therefore, novel developments that integrate microfluidic technology may provide solutions in the form of massive diagnostics to control the spread of infectious diseases. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Fundamentals of SARS-CoV-2 Biosensors)
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26 pages, 4270 KiB  
Review
Emerging Biosensors to Detect Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2): A Review
by Wei Yin Lim, Boon Leong Lan and Narayanan Ramakrishnan
Biosensors 2021, 11(11), 434; https://doi.org/10.3390/bios11110434 - 2 Nov 2021
Cited by 44 | Viewed by 9168
Abstract
Coronavirus disease (COVID-19) is a global health crisis caused by the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). Real-time reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) is the gold standard test for diagnosing COVID-19. Although it is highly accurate, this lab test requires highly-trained personnel [...] Read more.
Coronavirus disease (COVID-19) is a global health crisis caused by the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). Real-time reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) is the gold standard test for diagnosing COVID-19. Although it is highly accurate, this lab test requires highly-trained personnel and the turn-around time is long. Rapid and inexpensive immuno-diagnostic tests (antigen or antibody test) are available, but these point of care (POC) tests are not as accurate as the RT-PCR test. Biosensors are promising alternatives to these rapid POC tests. Here we review three types of recently developed biosensors for SARS-CoV-2 detection: surface plasmon resonance (SPR)-based, electrochemical and field-effect transistor (FET)-based biosensors. We explain the sensing principles and discuss the advantages and limitations of these sensors. The accuracies of these sensors need to be improved before they could be translated into POC devices for commercial use. We suggest potential biorecognition elements with highly selective target-analyte binding that could be explored to increase the true negative detection rate. To increase the true positive detection rate, we suggest two-dimensional materials and nanomaterials that could be used to modify the sensor surface to increase the sensitivity of the sensor. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Fundamentals of SARS-CoV-2 Biosensors)
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