Biosensors

Editorial

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Open AccessEditorial

Fundamentals of SARS-CoV-2 Biosensors

by Carlos Torres-Torres and Blanca Estela García-Pérez

Biosensors 2022, 12(10), 880; https://doi.org/10.3390/bios12100880 - 17 Oct 2022

Viewed by 1329

Abstract

A beautiful topic in its essence and content is represented by the powerful assistance of sensing methods and techniques for automatically revealing biological agents and biological functions in this era [...] Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Fundamentals of SARS-CoV-2 Biosensors)

Research

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15 pages, 2228 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Rapid and Sensitive Microfluidics-Based Tool for Seroprevalence Immunity Assessment of COVID-19 and Vaccination-Induced Humoral Antibody Response at the Point of Care

by Kritika Srinivasan Rajsri, Michael P. McRae, Glennon W. Simmons, Nicolaos J. Christodoulides, Hanover Matz, Helen Dooley, Akiko Koide, Shohei Koide and John T. McDevitt

Biosensors 2022, 12(8), 621; https://doi.org/10.3390/bios12080621 - 10 Aug 2022

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 3100

Abstract

As of 8 August 2022, SARS-CoV-2, the causative agent of COVID-19, has infected over 585 million people and resulted in more than 6.42 million deaths worldwide. While approved SARS-CoV-2 spike (S) protein-based vaccines induce robust seroconversion in most individuals, dramatically reducing disease severity [...] Read more.

As of 8 August 2022, SARS-CoV-2, the causative agent of COVID-19, has infected over 585 million people and resulted in more than 6.42 million deaths worldwide. While approved SARS-CoV-2 spike (S) protein-based vaccines induce robust seroconversion in most individuals, dramatically reducing disease severity and the risk of hospitalization, poorer responses are observed in aged, immunocompromised individuals and patients with certain pre-existing health conditions. Further, it is difficult to predict the protection conferred through vaccination or previous infection against new viral variants of concern (VoC) as they emerge. In this context, a rapid quantitative point-of-care (POC) serological assay able to quantify circulating anti-SARS-CoV-2 antibodies would allow clinicians to make informed decisions on the timing of booster shots, permit researchers to measure the level of cross-reactive antibody against new VoC in a previously immunized and/or infected individual, and help assess appropriate convalescent plasma donors, among other applications. Utilizing a lab-on-a-chip ecosystem, we present proof of concept, optimization, and validation of a POC strategy to quantitate COVID-19 humoral protection. This platform covers the entire diagnostic timeline of the disease, seroconversion, and vaccination response spanning multiple doses of immunization in a single POC test. Our results demonstrate that this platform is rapid (~15 min) and quantitative for SARS-CoV-2-specific IgG detection. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Fundamentals of SARS-CoV-2 Biosensors)

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10 pages, 2375 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Measurements of Anti-SARS-CoV-2 Antibody Levels after Vaccination Using a SH-SAW Biosensor

by Chia-Hsuan Cheng, Yu-Chi Peng, Shu-Min Lin, Hiromi Yatsuda, Szu-Heng Liu, Shih-Jen Liu, Chen-Yen Kuo and Robert Y. L. Wang

Biosensors 2022, 12(8), 599; https://doi.org/10.3390/bios12080599 - 4 Aug 2022

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 3139

Abstract

To prevent the COVID-19 pandemic that threatens human health, vaccination has become a useful and necessary tool in the response to the pandemic. The vaccine not only induces antibodies in the body, but may also cause adverse effects such as fatigue, muscle pain, [...] Read more.

To prevent the COVID-19 pandemic that threatens human health, vaccination has become a useful and necessary tool in the response to the pandemic. The vaccine not only induces antibodies in the body, but may also cause adverse effects such as fatigue, muscle pain, blood clots, and myocarditis, especially in patients with chronic disease. To reduce unnecessary vaccinations, it is becoming increasingly important to monitor the amount of anti-SARS-CoV-2 S protein antibodies prior to vaccination. A novel SH-SAW biosensor, coated with SARS-CoV-2 spike protein, can help quantify the amount of anti-SARS-CoV-2 S protein antibodies with 5 μL of finger blood within 40 s. The LoD of the spike-protein-coated SAW biosensor was determined to be 41.91 BAU/mL, and the cut-off point was determined to be 50 BAU/mL (Youden’s J statistic = 0.94733). By using the SH-SAW biosensor, we found that the total anti-SARS-CoV-2 S protein antibody concentrations spiked 10–14 days after the first vaccination (p = 0.0002) and 7–9 days after the second vaccination (p = 0.0116). Furthermore, mRNA vaccines, such as Moderna or BNT, could achieve higher concentrations of total anti-SARS-CoV-2 S protein antibodies compared with adenovirus vaccine, AZ (p < 0.0001). SH-SAW sensors in vitro diagnostic systems are a simple and powerful technology to investigate the local prevalence of COVID-19. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Fundamentals of SARS-CoV-2 Biosensors)

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17 pages, 4840 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Asymmetric Mach–Zehnder Interferometric Biosensing for Quantitative and Sensitive Multiplex Detection of Anti-SARS-CoV-2 Antibodies in Human Plasma

by Geert Besselink, Anke Schütz-Trilling, Janneke Veerbeek, Michelle Verbruggen, Adriaan van der Meer, Rens Schonenberg, Henk Dam, Kevin Evers, Ernst Lindhout, Anja Garritsen, Aart van Amerongen, Wout Knoben and Luc Scheres

Biosensors 2022, 12(8), 553; https://doi.org/10.3390/bios12080553 - 22 Jul 2022

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 4050

Abstract

The Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) pandemic has once more emphasized the urgent need for accurate and fast point-of-care (POC) diagnostics for outbreak control and prevention. The main challenge in the development of POC in vitro diagnostics (IVD) is to combine [...] Read more.

The Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) pandemic has once more emphasized the urgent need for accurate and fast point-of-care (POC) diagnostics for outbreak control and prevention. The main challenge in the development of POC in vitro diagnostics (IVD) is to combine a short time to result with a high sensitivity, and to keep the testing cost-effective. In this respect, sensors based on photonic integrated circuits (PICs) may offer advantages as they have features such as a high analytical sensitivity, capability for multiplexing, ease of miniaturization, and the potential for high-volume manufacturing. One special type of PIC sensor is the asymmetric Mach–Zehnder Interferometer (aMZI), which is characterized by a high and tunable analytical sensitivity. The current work describes the application of an aMZI-based biosensor platform for sensitive and multiplex detection of anti-SARS-CoV-2 antibodies in human plasma samples using the spike protein (SP), the receptor-binding domain (RBD), and the nucleocapsid protein (NP) as target antigens. The results are in good agreement with several CE-IVD marked reference methods and demonstrate the potential of the aMZI biosensor technology for further development into a photonic IVD platform. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Fundamentals of SARS-CoV-2 Biosensors)

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10 pages, 1236 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Rapid Detection of Anti-SARS-CoV-2 Antibodies with a Screen-Printed Electrode Modified with a Spike Glycoprotein Epitope

by Wilson A. Ameku, David W. Provance, Carlos M. Morel and Salvatore G. De-Simone

Biosensors 2022, 12(5), 272; https://doi.org/10.3390/bios12050272 - 26 Apr 2022

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 2641

Abstract

Background: The coronavirus disease of 2019 (COVID-19) is caused by an infection with severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). It was recognized in late 2019 and has since spread worldwide, leading to a pandemic with unprecedented health and financial consequences. There remains [...] Read more.

Background: The coronavirus disease of 2019 (COVID-19) is caused by an infection with severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). It was recognized in late 2019 and has since spread worldwide, leading to a pandemic with unprecedented health and financial consequences. There remains an enormous demand for new diagnostic methods that can deliver fast, low-cost, and easy-to-use confirmation of a SARS-CoV-2 infection. We have developed an affordable electrochemical biosensor for the rapid detection of serological immunoglobulin G (IgG) antibody in sera against the spike protein. Materials and Methods: A previously identified linear B-cell epitope (EP) specific to the SARS-CoV-2 spike glycoprotein and recognized by IgG in patient sera was selected for the target molecule. After synthesis, the EP was immobilized onto the surface of the working electrode of a commercially available screen-printed electrode (SPE). The capture of SARS-CoV-2-specific IgGs allowed the formation of an immunocomplex that was measured by square-wave voltammetry from its generation of hydroquinone (HQ). Results: An evaluation of the performance of the EP-based biosensor presented a selectivity and specificity for COVID-19 of 93% and 100%, respectively. No cross-reaction was observed to antibodies against other diseases that included Chagas disease, Chikungunya, Leishmaniosis, and Dengue. Differentiation of infected and non-infected individuals was possible even at a high dilution factor that decreased the required sample volumes to a few microliters. Conclusion: The final device proved suitable for diagnosing COVID-19 by assaying actual serum samples, and the results displayed good agreement with the molecular biology diagnoses. The flexibility to conjugate other EPs to SPEs suggests that this technology could be rapidly adapted to diagnose new variants of SARS-CoV-2 or other pathogens. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Fundamentals of SARS-CoV-2 Biosensors)

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9 pages, 4573 KiB

Open AccessCommunication

Latex Microsphere-Based Bicolor Immunochromatography for Qualitative Detection of Neutralizing Antibody against SARS-CoV-2

by Zhanwei Liang, Tao Peng, Xueshima Jiao, Yang Zhao, Jie Xie, You Jiang, Bo Meng, Xiang Fang, Xiaoping Yu and Xinhua Dai

Biosensors 2022, 12(2), 103; https://doi.org/10.3390/bios12020103 - 7 Feb 2022

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 4496

Abstract

Neutralizing antibody (NAb) is a family of antibodies with special functions, which afford a degree of protection against infection and/or reduce the risk of clinically severe infection. Receptor binding domain (RBD) in the spike protein of SARS-CoV-2, a portion of the S1 subunit, [...] Read more.

Neutralizing antibody (NAb) is a family of antibodies with special functions, which afford a degree of protection against infection and/or reduce the risk of clinically severe infection. Receptor binding domain (RBD) in the spike protein of SARS-CoV-2, a portion of the S1 subunit, can stimulate the immune system to produce NAb after infection and vaccination. The detection of NAb against SARS-CoV-2 is a simple and direct approach for evaluating a vaccine’s effectiveness. In this study, a direct, rapid, and point-of-care bicolor lateral flow immunoassay (LFIA) was developed for NAb against SARS-CoV-2 detection without sample pretreatment, and which was based on the principle of NAb-mediated blockage of the interaction between RBD and angiotensin-converting enzyme 2. In the bicolor LFIA, red and blue latex microspheres (LMs) were used to locate the test and control lines, leading to avoidance of erroneous interpretations of one-colored line results. Under the optimal conditions, NAb against SARS-CoV-2 detection carried out using the bicolor LFIA could be completed within 9 min, and the visible limit of detection was about 48 ng/mL. Thirteen serum samples were analyzed, and the results showed that the NAb levels in three positive serum samples were equal to, or higher than, 736 ng/mL. The LM-based bicolor LFIA allows one-step, rapid, convenient, inexpensive, and user-friendly determination of NAb against SARS-CoV-2 in serum. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Fundamentals of SARS-CoV-2 Biosensors)

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10 pages, 3759 KiB

Open AccessCommunication

Lateral Flow Immunoassay Coupled with Copper Enhancement for Rapid and Sensitive SARS-CoV-2 Nucleocapsid Protein Detection

by Tao Peng, Xueshima Jiao, Zhanwei Liang, Hongwei Zhao, Yang Zhao, Jie Xie, You Jiang, Xiaoping Yu, Xiang Fang and Xinhua Dai

Biosensors 2022, 12(1), 13; https://doi.org/10.3390/bios12010013 - 29 Dec 2021

Cited by 32 | Viewed by 3790

Abstract

The coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic caused by severe acute respiratory coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) is still raging all over the world. Hence, the rapid and sensitive screening of the suspected population is in high demand. The nucleocapsid protein (NP) of SARS-CoV-2 has been [...] Read more.

The coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic caused by severe acute respiratory coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) is still raging all over the world. Hence, the rapid and sensitive screening of the suspected population is in high demand. The nucleocapsid protein (NP) of SARS-CoV-2 has been selected as an ideal marker for viral antigen detection. This study describes a lateral flow immunoassay (LFIA) based on colloidal gold nanoparticles for rapid NP antigen detection, in which sensitivity was improved through copper deposition-induced signal amplification. The detection sensitivity of the developed LFIA for NP antigen detection (using certified reference materials) under the optimized parameters was 0.01 μg/mL and was promoted by three orders of magnitude to 10 pg/mL after copper deposition signal amplification. The LFIA coupled with the copper enhancement technique has many merits such as low cost, high efficiency, and high sensitivity. It provides an effective approach to the rapid screening, diagnosis, and monitoring of the suspected population in the COVID-19 outbreak. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Fundamentals of SARS-CoV-2 Biosensors)

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14 pages, 1999 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Lateral Flow Immunoassay of SARS-CoV-2 Antigen with SERS-Based Registration: Development and Comparison with Traditional Immunoassays

by Kseniya V. Serebrennikova, Nadezhda A. Byzova, Anatoly V. Zherdev, Nikolai G. Khlebtsov, Boris N. Khlebtsov, Sergey F. Biketov and Boris B. Dzantiev

Biosensors 2021, 11(12), 510; https://doi.org/10.3390/bios11120510 - 10 Dec 2021

Cited by 26 | Viewed by 4527

Abstract

The current COVID-19 pandemic has increased the demand for pathogen detection methods that combine low detection limits with rapid results. Despite the significant progress in methods and devices for nucleic acid amplification, immunochemical methods are still preferred for mass testing without specialized laboratories [...] Read more.

The current COVID-19 pandemic has increased the demand for pathogen detection methods that combine low detection limits with rapid results. Despite the significant progress in methods and devices for nucleic acid amplification, immunochemical methods are still preferred for mass testing without specialized laboratories and highly qualified personnel. The most widely used immunoassays are microplate enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) with photometric detection and lateral flow immunoassay (LFIA) with visual results assessment. However, the disadvantage of ELISA is its considerable duration, and that of LFIA is its low sensitivity. In this study, the modified LFIA of a specific antigen of the causative agent of COVID-19, spike receptor-binding domain, was developed and characterized. This modified LFIA includes the use of gold nanoparticles with immobilized antibodies and 4-mercaptobenzoic acid as surface-enhanced Raman scattering (SERS) nanotag and registration of the nanotag binding by SERS spectrometry. To enhance the sensitivity of LFIA-SERS analysis, we determined the optimal compositions of SERS nanotags and membranes used in LFIA. For benchmark comparison, ELISA and conventional colorimetric LFIA were used with the same immune reagents. The proposed method combines a low detection limit of 0.1 ng/mL (at 0.4 ng/mL for ELISA and 1 ng/mL for qualitative LFIA) with a short assay time equal to 20 min (at 3.5 h for ELISA and 15 min for LFIA). The results obtained demonstrate the promise of using the SERS effects in membrane immuno-analytical systems. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Fundamentals of SARS-CoV-2 Biosensors)

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Review

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18 pages, 2153 KiB

Open AccessReview

Challenges in the Detection of SARS-CoV-2: Evolution of the Lateral Flow Immunoassay as a Valuable Tool for Viral Diagnosis

by Nayeli Shantal Castrejón-Jiménez, Blanca Estela García-Pérez, Nydia Edith Reyes-Rodríguez, Vicente Vega-Sánchez, Víctor Manuel Martínez-Juárez and Juan Carlos Hernández-González

Biosensors 2022, 12(9), 728; https://doi.org/10.3390/bios12090728 - 5 Sep 2022

Cited by 16 | Viewed by 3880

Abstract

SARS-CoV-2 is an emerging infectious disease of zoonotic origin that caused the coronavirus disease in late 2019 and triggered a pandemic that has severely affected human health and caused millions of deaths. Early and massive diagnosis of SARS-CoV-2 infected patients is the key [...] Read more.

SARS-CoV-2 is an emerging infectious disease of zoonotic origin that caused the coronavirus disease in late 2019 and triggered a pandemic that has severely affected human health and caused millions of deaths. Early and massive diagnosis of SARS-CoV-2 infected patients is the key to preventing the spread of the virus and controlling the outbreak. Lateral flow immunoassays (LFIA) are the simplest biosensors. These devices are clinical diagnostic tools that can detect various analytes, including viruses and antibodies, with high sensitivity and specificity. This review summarizes the advantages, limitations, and evolution of LFIA during the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic and the challenges of improving these diagnostic devices. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Fundamentals of SARS-CoV-2 Biosensors)

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30 pages, 2700 KiB

Open AccessReview

A Framework for Biosensors Assisted by Multiphoton Effects and Machine Learning

by Jose Alberto Arano-Martinez, Claudia Lizbeth Martínez-González, Ma Isabel Salazar and Carlos Torres-Torres

Biosensors 2022, 12(9), 710; https://doi.org/10.3390/bios12090710 - 1 Sep 2022

Cited by 48 | Viewed by 4070

Abstract

The ability to interpret information through automatic sensors is one of the most important pillars of modern technology. In particular, the potential of biosensors has been used to evaluate biological information of living organisms, and to detect danger or predict urgent situations in [...] Read more.

The ability to interpret information through automatic sensors is one of the most important pillars of modern technology. In particular, the potential of biosensors has been used to evaluate biological information of living organisms, and to detect danger or predict urgent situations in a battlefield, as in the invasion of SARS-CoV-2 in this era. This work is devoted to describing a panoramic overview of optical biosensors that can be improved by the assistance of nonlinear optics and machine learning methods. Optical biosensors have demonstrated their effectiveness in detecting a diverse range of viruses. Specifically, the SARS-CoV-2 virus has generated disturbance all over the world, and biosensors have emerged as a key for providing an analysis based on physical and chemical phenomena. In this perspective, we highlight how multiphoton interactions can be responsible for an enhancement in sensibility exhibited by biosensors. The nonlinear optical effects open up a series of options to expand the applications of optical biosensors. Nonlinearities together with computer tools are suitable for the identification of complex low-dimensional agents. Machine learning methods can approximate functions to reveal patterns in the detection of dynamic objects in the human body and determine viruses, harmful entities, or strange kinetics in cells. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Fundamentals of SARS-CoV-2 Biosensors)

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14 pages, 1911 KiB

Open AccessReview

Plasmonic Approaches for the Detection of SARS-CoV-2 Viral Particles

by Sabine Szunerits, Hiba Saada, Quentin Pagneux and Rabah Boukherroub

Biosensors 2022, 12(7), 548; https://doi.org/10.3390/bios12070548 - 21 Jul 2022

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 2915

Abstract

The ongoing highly contagious Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic, caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), underlines the fundamental position of diagnostic testing in outbreak control by allowing a distinction of the infected from the non-infected people. Diagnosis of COVID-19 remains [...] Read more.

The ongoing highly contagious Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic, caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), underlines the fundamental position of diagnostic testing in outbreak control by allowing a distinction of the infected from the non-infected people. Diagnosis of COVID-19 remains largely based on reverse transcription PCR (RT-PCR), identifying the genetic material of the virus. Molecular testing approaches have been largely proposed in addition to infectivity testing of patients via sensing the presence of viral particles of SARS-CoV-2 specific structural proteins, such as the spike glycoproteins (S1, S2) and the nucleocapsid (N) protein. While the S1 protein remains the main target for neutralizing antibody treatment upon infection and the focus of vaccine and therapeutic design, it has also become a major target for the development of point-of care testing (POCT) devices. This review will focus on the possibility of surface plasmon resonance (SPR)-based sensing platforms to convert the receptor-binding event of SARS-CoV-2 viral particles into measurable signals. The state-of-the-art SPR-based SARS-CoV-2 sensing devices will be provided, and highlights about the applicability of plasmonic sensors as POCT for virus particle as well as viral protein sensing will be discussed. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Fundamentals of SARS-CoV-2 Biosensors)

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20 pages, 1561 KiB

Open AccessReview

Microfluidics-Based Biosensing Platforms: Emerging Frontiers in Point-of-Care Testing SARS-CoV-2 and Seroprevalence

by Elda A. Flores-Contreras, Reyna Berenice González-González, Iram P. Rodríguez-Sánchez, Juan F. Yee-de León, Hafiz M. N. Iqbal and Everardo González-González

Biosensors 2022, 12(3), 179; https://doi.org/10.3390/bios12030179 - 17 Mar 2022

Cited by 13 | Viewed by 4319

Abstract

Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) caused the ongoing COVID-19 (coronavirus disease-2019) outbreak and has unprecedentedly impacted the public health and economic sector. The pandemic has forced researchers to focus on the accurate and early detection of SARS-CoV-2, developing novel diagnostic tests. [...] Read more.

Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) caused the ongoing COVID-19 (coronavirus disease-2019) outbreak and has unprecedentedly impacted the public health and economic sector. The pandemic has forced researchers to focus on the accurate and early detection of SARS-CoV-2, developing novel diagnostic tests. Among these, microfluidic-based tests stand out for their multiple benefits, such as their portability, low cost, and minimal reagents used. This review discusses the different microfluidic platforms applied in detecting SARS-CoV-2 and seroprevalence, classified into three sections according to the molecules to be detected, i.e., (1) nucleic acid, (2) antigens, and (3) anti-SARS-CoV-2 antibodies. Moreover, commercially available alternatives based on microfluidic platforms are described. Timely and accurate results allow healthcare professionals to perform efficient treatments and make appropriate decisions for infection control; therefore, novel developments that integrate microfluidic technology may provide solutions in the form of massive diagnostics to control the spread of infectious diseases. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Fundamentals of SARS-CoV-2 Biosensors)

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26 pages, 4270 KiB

Open AccessReview

Emerging Biosensors to Detect Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2): A Review

by Wei Yin Lim, Boon Leong Lan and Narayanan Ramakrishnan

Biosensors 2021, 11(11), 434; https://doi.org/10.3390/bios11110434 - 2 Nov 2021

Cited by 43 | Viewed by 9030

Abstract

Coronavirus disease (COVID-19) is a global health crisis caused by the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). Real-time reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) is the gold standard test for diagnosing COVID-19. Although it is highly accurate, this lab test requires highly-trained personnel [...] Read more.

Coronavirus disease (COVID-19) is a global health crisis caused by the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). Real-time reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) is the gold standard test for diagnosing COVID-19. Although it is highly accurate, this lab test requires highly-trained personnel and the turn-around time is long. Rapid and inexpensive immuno-diagnostic tests (antigen or antibody test) are available, but these point of care (POC) tests are not as accurate as the RT-PCR test. Biosensors are promising alternatives to these rapid POC tests. Here we review three types of recently developed biosensors for SARS-CoV-2 detection: surface plasmon resonance (SPR)-based, electrochemical and field-effect transistor (FET)-based biosensors. We explain the sensing principles and discuss the advantages and limitations of these sensors. The accuracies of these sensors need to be improved before they could be translated into POC devices for commercial use. We suggest potential biorecognition elements with highly selective target-analyte binding that could be explored to increase the true negative detection rate. To increase the true positive detection rate, we suggest two-dimensional materials and nanomaterials that could be used to modify the sensor surface to increase the sensitivity of the sensor. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Fundamentals of SARS-CoV-2 Biosensors)

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