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26 pages, 12001 KB

Open AccessArticle

Rapid Evaluation of University Classrooms Using an MLP Classification Model Based on Daylight–Thermal Performance

by Jin Yan, Xingyi Gu, Guodong Wu, Lu Wang, Nian Si, Yongjian Zhao and Dongchen Han

Buildings 2026, 16(8), 1566; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16081566 - 16 Apr 2026

Classrooms in severe cold regions face the dual challenge of ensuring high-quality daylighting while minimizing heating energy consumption. To address this challenge, this study develops a data-driven workflow that integrates building performance simulation, multi-objective optimization and a classification-based surrogate model, aiming to explore [...] Read more.

Classrooms in severe cold regions face the dual challenge of ensuring high-quality daylighting while minimizing heating energy consumption. To address this challenge, this study develops a data-driven workflow that integrates building performance simulation, multi-objective optimization and a classification-based surrogate model, aiming to explore integrated improvements in daylighting and heating energy consumption in university classrooms. The results show that: (1) multi-objective optimization significantly enhances overall performance. Daylighting performance improves, with Spatial Daylight Autonomy (sDA) and Useful Daylight Illuminance (UDI) increasing by 0.15 and 10.67%, respectively, and Daylight Glare Probability (DGP) decreasing by 16.35%. Meanwhile, Heating Energy Consumption (E_h) is reduced by 6.20 kWh/m²; (2) SHAP analysis further identifies classroom depth, height, and glazing option as key design parameters influencing integrated daylight–thermal performance; (3) the MLP classification model achieves stable predictive accuracy, with accuracy, recall, and F1-score exceeding 0.95, demonstrating strong generalization ability. This study provides quantitative insights into the relationship between spatial parameters and daylight–thermal performance, offering researchers a method for rapidly evaluating design schemes at the early design stage. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Computational Design for Low-Carbon and Climate-Responsive Architecture and Urban Environments)

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29 pages, 7513 KB

Open AccessArticle

Performance Evaluation of ENVI-Met in Simulating Microclimates Beneath Elevated Buildings in Cold Climates

by Xuan Ma, Yuhuan Yang and Tongxin Li

Buildings 2026, 16(6), 1215; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16061215 - 19 Mar 2026

Viewed by 311

Abstract

Sustainable development in cities has gained popularity due to the emergence of numerous urban challenges in harsh environments. Selecting an accurate turbulence model in CFD is crucial for assessing the outdoor environment. Among the widely used microclimate simulation tools, ENVI-met stands out for [...] Read more.

Sustainable development in cities has gained popularity due to the emergence of numerous urban challenges in harsh environments. Selecting an accurate turbulence model in CFD is crucial for assessing the outdoor environment. Among the widely used microclimate simulation tools, ENVI-met stands out for its convenience and its proven effectiveness in urban microclimate studies. Elevated design, often referred to as ‘lifted up design,’ is standard in architectural practice, serving both as recreational spaces and corridors, potentially improving thermal comfort. To ensure reliable microclimate modeling, assessments in such areas should be validated against empirical data. This study compares the microclimatic conditions in open space beneath an elevated building using ENVI-met with on-site meteorological data collected in Xi’an, China, across three days with varying weather conditions. The results show that ENVI-met can reasonably reproduce air temperature (R² = 0.80–0.96, RMSE = 0.67–1.42 °C), relative humidity (R² = 0.85–0.99, RMSE = 2.83–9.32%), and mean radiant temperature (R² = 0.87–0.90, RMSE = 4.11–7.23 °C) under different conditions, though some deviations exist—especially with diffuse radiation, which ENVI-met tends to underestimate beneath elevated structures. Despite these discrepancies, the model performance was evaluated by comparing field measurements with ENVI-met outputs, and the results indicate that ENVI-met can provide useful insights for simulating microclimate conditions in open spaces beneath elevated buildings under different weather conditions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Computational Design for Low-Carbon and Climate-Responsive Architecture and Urban Environments)

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18 pages, 4310 KB

Open AccessArticle

Heritage Building Meets Feng Shui: Validating Wind Comfort Logic in a Beijing Siheyuan by CFD and Field Experiments

by Ang Sha, Hui Feng, Xiaolin Zang and Yifang Jing

Buildings 2026, 16(6), 1134; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16061134 - 12 Mar 2026

Viewed by 409

Abstract

This study delves into the impact of the Feng Shui theory framework on the wind environment of the Beijing Siheyuan (a traditional quadrangle courtyard). By integrating numerical simulations, field experiments, and comparative analyses, we assess the wind environment of Feng Shui and non-Feng [...] Read more.

This study delves into the impact of the Feng Shui theory framework on the wind environment of the Beijing Siheyuan (a traditional quadrangle courtyard). By integrating numerical simulations, field experiments, and comparative analyses, we assess the wind environment of Feng Shui and non-Feng Shui layouts of the Siheyuan in summer. The results demonstrate that the Feng Shui layout provides an improved wind environment and comfort level in the Siheyuan in summer. Specifically, the Feng Shui layout demonstrates superior average wind speeds and expands the area of comfortable wind zones by 75.52% when the entrance is located at the southeastern point, outperforming the non-Feng Shui layout. Additionally, optimizing the courtyard, the Moon Gate, and the Screen Wall according to the Feng Shui theory framework can enhance wind comfort in the Siheyuan. This study provides valuable insights for climate-adaptive design based on the Feng Shui theory framework. It also provides a novel method for translating Chinese cultural genes from a scientific perspective. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Computational Design for Low-Carbon and Climate-Responsive Architecture and Urban Environments)

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25 pages, 4660 KB

Open AccessArticle

A Thermal Comfort Study of Plateau Settlements in Qinghai Through Field Data and Simulation

by Jie Song, Yu Liu, Zhiyuan Ma, Wei Song, Bo Liu and Shangkai Hao

Buildings 2026, 16(3), 487; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16030487 - 24 Jan 2026

Viewed by 348

Abstract

Residential buildings on the Qinghai–Tibet Plateau face persistent thermal discomfort due to high-altitude climatic extremes. This study investigates how building morphology—including aspect ratio (AR), orientation, and area scaling—affects indoor thermal comfort. Field surveys in Xinghai County informed representative dwelling reconstructions, which were simulated [...] Read more.

Residential buildings on the Qinghai–Tibet Plateau face persistent thermal discomfort due to high-altitude climatic extremes. This study investigates how building morphology—including aspect ratio (AR), orientation, and area scaling—affects indoor thermal comfort. Field surveys in Xinghai County informed representative dwelling reconstructions, which were simulated using Ladybug 1.8.0 and Honeybee 1.8.0. Thermal performance was evaluated using PMV, SET, Winter solstice apparent form factor (WSAFF), and surface-to-volume ratio (S/V). Results indicate that compact, near-square forms enhance seasonal thermal stability, with higher WSAFF improving winter solar gains but raising summer overheating risk. South-facing orientations (0° to −30°) optimize summer comfort, while geometric scaling (0.4–2.0) stabilizes indoor temperatures and improves summer PMV and SET, though winter benefits are limited. Comparison of prototype layouts shows that elongated footprints increase vertical variation in comfort, highlighting upper-floor sensitivity to geometry. The study provides a climate-specific framework linking building form with indoor thermal performance. These insights offer practical guidance for sustainable settlement planning and adaptive building design in cold, high-altitude regions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Computational Design for Low-Carbon and Climate-Responsive Architecture and Urban Environments)

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16 pages, 5785 KB

Open AccessArticle

Open Source Integration for Sustainable Buildings: Validating a Low-Cost Computational Framework in a Subtropical Academic Environment

by Wei Lin, Szu-Wei Fang and Shwu-Ting Lee

Buildings 2026, 16(1), 86; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16010086 - 24 Dec 2025

Viewed by 806

Abstract

This study proposes a scalable cyber–physical system (CPS) framework utilizing a hierarchical five-layer architecture to enhance indoor environmental quality and energy efficiency. The methodology integrates a Random Forest-based predictive model trained on a 22-month longitudinal dataset (2024–2025) to separate climatic effects from occupancy-driven [...] Read more.

This study proposes a scalable cyber–physical system (CPS) framework utilizing a hierarchical five-layer architecture to enhance indoor environmental quality and energy efficiency. The methodology integrates a Random Forest-based predictive model trained on a 22-month longitudinal dataset (2024–2025) to separate climatic effects from occupancy-driven loads. This study prioritized the development of a high-precision and cost-effective monitoring architecture to address the persistent challenge of sustaining thermal comfort in subtropical academic laboratories. The proposed system achieved a validation mean absolute percentage error (MAPE) of 2.50%, indicating strong predictive reliability. Hardware expenditures were below USD 400, substantially reducing barriers to broader adoption. Field deployment confirmed an operational EUI of 188.6 kWh/m²·year, which is 28.5% lower than prevailing regional benchmarks, while consistently meeting stringent indoor air quality (IAQ) requirements. Additionally, simulation modules calibrated with the validated dataset indicated a further 15–20% reduction potential through the application of active control strategies. Collectively, these findings establish a transferable empirical reference for climate-responsive operational practice. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Computational Design for Low-Carbon and Climate-Responsive Architecture and Urban Environments)

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33 pages, 6049 KB

Open AccessArticle

Multi-Objective Optimization of Atrium Form Variables for Daylighting, Energy Consumption and Thermal Comfort of Teaching Buildings at the Early Design Stage in Cold Climates

by Lu Wang, Adnan Ibrahim and Yijun Jiang

Buildings 2025, 15(24), 4434; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15244434 - 8 Dec 2025

Viewed by 648

Abstract

Atrium spaces are widely applied in university buildings. However, achieving effective energy reduction while maintaining adequate daylighting and indoor comfort remains a major challenge at the early design stage. This study identifies key building form design variables significantly influencing atrium daylighting, energy use, [...] Read more.

Atrium spaces are widely applied in university buildings. However, achieving effective energy reduction while maintaining adequate daylighting and indoor comfort remains a major challenge at the early design stage. This study identifies key building form design variables significantly influencing atrium daylighting, energy use, and thermal comfort, including building orientation, atrium width-to-depth ratio, atrium aspect ratio, atrium bottom area ratio, and skylight–roof ratio. A multi-objective optimization (MOO) framework is proposed to balance daylight performance, energy consumption, and thermal comfort under fixed envelope parameters. Using typical single- and double-atrium teaching buildings in cold regions as case studies, this research adopts Useful Daylight Illuminance (UDI), Energy Use Intensity (EUI), and Discomfort Time Percentage (DTP) as key indicators to evaluate the interactions between design parameters and building performance. Based on the Pareto-optimal results for the studied prototypes, a south-by-west orientation, moderately slender atrium proportions, relatively compact atrium bottom areas, and medium skylight–roof ratios together yield a balanced performance. Compared with the reference to the initial solution, the optimized solutions reduce EUI by up to 5.66% while also improving UDI and DTP. These results are intended as quantitative references and optimization for early-stage geometric forms design of atrium teaching buildings in cold regions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Computational Design for Low-Carbon and Climate-Responsive Architecture and Urban Environments)

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29 pages, 7183 KB

Open AccessArticle

Exploring Urban Spatial Quality Through Street View Imagery and Human Perception Analysis

by Yonghao Li, Jialin Lu, Yuan Meng, Yiwen Luo and Juan Ren

Buildings 2025, 15(17), 3116; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15173116 - 31 Aug 2025

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 3808

Abstract

Amid the global challenges of rapid urbanization, understanding how micro-scale spatial features shape human perception is critical for advancing livable cities. This study pro-poses a data-driven framework that integrates street view imagery, deep learning-based semantic segmentation, and machine learning interpretation models including SHAP [...] Read more.

Amid the global challenges of rapid urbanization, understanding how micro-scale spatial features shape human perception is critical for advancing livable cities. This study pro-poses a data-driven framework that integrates street view imagery, deep learning-based semantic segmentation, and machine learning interpretation models including SHAP analysis to explore the relationship between urban spatial characteristics and subjective perceptions. A total of 12,604 street-level images from Xi’an, China, were analyzed to ex-tract seven spatial indicators. These indicators were then linked with perceptual data across six emotional dimensions derived from the Place Pulse 2.0 dataset. The analysis revealed that natural elements significantly enhance perceived comfort and aesthetics, while high-density built environments can suppress perceived safety and liveliness. Spatial clustering further identified three urban typologies—traditional, transitional, and modern—with distinct perceptual signatures. These findings offer scalable and transferable insights for perception-informed urban design and renewal, particularly in dense urban settings worldwide. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Computational Design for Low-Carbon and Climate-Responsive Architecture and Urban Environments)

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37 pages, 7429 KB

Open AccessArticle

Study on the Influence of Window Size on the Thermal Comfort of Traditional One-Seal Dwellings (Yikeyin) in Kunming Under Natural Wind

by Yaoning Yang, Junfeng Yin, Jixiang Cai, Xinping Wang and Juncheng Zeng

Buildings 2025, 15(15), 2714; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15152714 - 1 Aug 2025

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1413

Abstract

Under the dual challenges of global energy crisis and climate change, the building sector, as a major carbon emitter consuming 33% of global primary energy, has seen its energy efficiency optimization become a critical pathway towards achieving carbon neutrality goals. The Window-to-Wall Ratio [...] Read more.

Under the dual challenges of global energy crisis and climate change, the building sector, as a major carbon emitter consuming 33% of global primary energy, has seen its energy efficiency optimization become a critical pathway towards achieving carbon neutrality goals. The Window-to-Wall Ratio (WWR), serving as a core parameter in building envelope design, directly influences building energy consumption, with its optimized design playing a decisive role in balancing natural daylighting, ventilation efficiency, and thermal comfort. This study focuses on the traditional One-Seal dwellings (Yikeyin) in Kunming, China, establishing a dynamic wind field-thermal environment coupled analysis framework to investigate the impact mechanism of window dimensions (WWR and aspect ratio) on indoor thermal comfort under natural wind conditions in transitional climate zones. Utilizing the Grasshopper platform integrated with Ladybug, Honeybee, and Butterfly plugins, we developed parametric models incorporating Kunming’s Energy Plus Weather meteorological data. EnergyPlus and OpenFOAM were employed, respectively, for building heat-moisture balance calculations and Computational Fluid Dynamic (CFD) simulations, with particular emphasis on analyzing the effects of varying WWR (0.05–0.20) on temperature-humidity, air velocity, and ventilation efficiency during typical winter and summer weeks. Key findings include, (1) in summer, the baseline scenario with WWR = 0.1 achieves a dynamic thermal-humidity balance (20.89–24.27 °C, 65.35–74.22%) through a “air-permeable but non-ventilative” strategy, though wing rooms show humidity-heat accumulation risks; increasing WWR to 0.15–0.2 enhances ventilation efficiency (2–3 times higher air changes) but causes a 4.5% humidity surge; (2) winter conditions with WWR ≥ 0.15 reduce wing room temperatures to 17.32 °C, approaching cold thresholds, while WWR = 0.05 mitigates heat loss but exacerbates humidity accumulation; (3) a symmetrical layout structurally constrains central ventilation, maintaining main halls air changes below one Air Change per Hour (ACH). The study proposes an optimized WWR range of 0.1–0.15 combined with asymmetric window opening strategies, providing quantitative guidance for validating the scientific value of vernacular architectural wisdom in low-energy design. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Computational Design for Low-Carbon and Climate-Responsive Architecture and Urban Environments)

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