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Cells
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Bone Cell Function and Interplay in Physiological and Pathological Conditions
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Bone Cell Function and Interplay in Physiological and Pathological Conditions

A special issue of Cells (ISSN 2073-4409). This special issue belongs to the section "Cellular Pathology".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (30 September 2023) | Viewed by 31577

Special Issue Editors

Prof. Dr. Silvia Capellino

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Guest Editor
Leibniz Research Centre for Working Environment and Human Factors, Dortmund, Germany
Interests: rheumatoid arthritis; osteoblasts; osteoclasts; peripheral dopamine
Prof. Dr. Irene Gutiérrez-Cañas

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Department of Cell Biology, Faculty of Biology, Universidad Complutense de Madrid, Madrid, Spain
Interests: vasoactive intestinal peptide; VPAC1 receptor; VPAC2 receptor; autoimmune diseases; rheumatoid arthritis; osteoarthritis; Th lymphocytes; osteoclasts; fibroblast like synoviocytes; macrophage like synoviocytes

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Bone homeostasis is a dynamic equilibrium involving many cell types, such as osteoclasts, osteoblasts, and osteocytes. Moreover, many other cell types are now recognized to be involved in bone homeostasis, including immune cells, adipocytes, and mesenchymal cells. Their interplay is crucial for bone metabolism, and uncoupling of bone cell function and differentiation leads to alteration of bone structure, such as osteoporosis, osteopetrosis, and bone marrow adiposity.

Despite the clinical relevance of bone homeostasis, there is still a need for knowledge on physiological bone cell function and interaction, as well as on signaling pathways responsible for altered bone cell function during inflammatory and degenerative diseases, especially in humans.

This Special Issue invites original research articles as well as reviews on recent advances in bone cell function, differentiation, and activation in physiologic conditions, as well as during inflammatory and degenerative diseases. We especially encourage articles focusing on human bone cells, as well as articles describing the interplay of different bone cell types. Basic studies as well as preclinical studies in all fields of bone research are welcome.

Prof. Dr. Silvia Capellino
Prof. Dr. Irene Gutiérrez-Cañas
Guest Editors

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Published Papers (10 papers)

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Research

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14 pages, 3312 KiB  
Article
Cyclophilin E (CypE) Functions as a Positive Regulator in Osteoblast Differentiation by Regulating the Transcriptional Activity of Runx2
by Meiyu Piao, Sung Ho Lee, Yuankuan Li, Joong-Kook Choi, Chang-Yeol Yeo and Kwang Youl Lee
Cells 2023, 12(21), 2549; https://doi.org/10.3390/cells12212549 - 31 Oct 2023
Viewed by 1398
Abstract
Cyclophilin E (CypE) belongs to the cyclophilin family and exhibits peptidyl-prolyl cis-trans isomerase (PPIase) activity. It participates in various biological processes through the regulation of peptidyl-prolyl isomerization. However, the specific role of CypE in osteoblast differentiation has not yet been elucidated. In this [...] Read more.
Cyclophilin E (CypE) belongs to the cyclophilin family and exhibits peptidyl-prolyl cis-trans isomerase (PPIase) activity. It participates in various biological processes through the regulation of peptidyl-prolyl isomerization. However, the specific role of CypE in osteoblast differentiation has not yet been elucidated. In this study, we first discovered the positive impact of CypE on osteoblast differentiation through gain or loss of function experiments. Mechanistically, CypE enhances the transcriptional activity of Runx2 through its PPIase activity. Furthermore, we identified the involvement of the Akt signaling pathway in CypE’s function in osteoblast differentiation. Taken together, our findings indicate that CypE plays an important role in osteoblast differentiation as a positive regulator by increasing the transcriptional activity of Runx2. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Bone Cell Function and Interplay in Physiological and Pathological Conditions)
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19 pages, 4622 KiB  
Article
The Lymphatic Endothelial Cell Secretome Inhibits Osteoblast Differentiation and Bone Formation
by Ernesto Solorzano, Andrew L. Alejo, Hope C. Ball, Gabrielle T. Robinson, Andrea L. Solorzano, Rama Safadi, Jacob Douglas, Michael Kelly and Fayez F. Safadi
Cells 2023, 12(20), 2482; https://doi.org/10.3390/cells12202482 - 18 Oct 2023
Viewed by 2270
Abstract
Complex lymphatic anomalies (CLAs) are a set of rare diseases with unique osteopathic profiles. Recent efforts have identified how lymphatic-specific somatic activating mutations can induce abnormal lymphatic formations that are capable of invading bone and inducing bone resorption. The abnormal bone resorption in [...] Read more.
Complex lymphatic anomalies (CLAs) are a set of rare diseases with unique osteopathic profiles. Recent efforts have identified how lymphatic-specific somatic activating mutations can induce abnormal lymphatic formations that are capable of invading bone and inducing bone resorption. The abnormal bone resorption in CLA patients has been linked to overactive osteoclasts in areas with lymphatic invasions. Despite these findings, the mechanism associated with progressive bone loss in CLAs remains to be elucidated. In order to determine the role of osteoblasts in CLAs, we sought to assess osteoblast differentiation and bone formation when exposed to the lymphatic endothelial cell secretome. When treated with lymphatic endothelial cell conditioned medium (L-CM), osteoblasts exhibited a significant decrease in proliferation, differentiation, and function. Additionally, L-CM treatment also inhibited bone formation through a neonatal calvaria explant culture. These findings are the first to reveal how osteoblasts may be actively suppressed during bone lymphatic invasion in CLAs. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Bone Cell Function and Interplay in Physiological and Pathological Conditions)
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15 pages, 3569 KiB  
Article
Proton and Carbon Ion Irradiation Changes the Process of Endochondral Ossification in an Ex Vivo Femur Organotypic Culture Model
by Vanessa Etschmaier, Dietmar Glänzer, Nicole Eck, Ute Schäfer, Andreas Leithner, Dietmar Georg and Birgit Lohberger
Cells 2023, 12(18), 2301; https://doi.org/10.3390/cells12182301 - 18 Sep 2023
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1629
Abstract
Particle therapy (PT) that utilizes protons and carbon ions offers a promising way to reduce the side effects of radiation oncology, especially in pediatric patients. To investigate the influence of PT on growing bone, we exposed an organotypic rat ex vivo femur culture [...] Read more.
Particle therapy (PT) that utilizes protons and carbon ions offers a promising way to reduce the side effects of radiation oncology, especially in pediatric patients. To investigate the influence of PT on growing bone, we exposed an organotypic rat ex vivo femur culture model to PT. After irradiation, histological staining, immunohistochemical staining, and gene expression analysis were conducted following 1 or 14 days of in vitro culture (DIV). Our data indicated a significant loss of proliferating chondrocytes at 1 DIV, which was followed by regeneration attempts through chondrocytic cluster formation at 14 DIV. Accelerated levels of mineralization were observed, which correlated with increased proteoglycan production and secretion into the pericellular matrix. Col2α1 expression, which increased during the cultivation period, was significantly inhibited by PT. Additionally, the decrease in ColX expression over time was more pronounced compared to the non-IR control. The chondrogenic markers BMP2, RUNX2, OPG, and the osteogenic marker ALPL, showed a significant reduction in the increase in expression after 14 DIV due to PT treatment. It was noted that carbon ions had a stronger influence than protons. Our bone model demonstrated the occurrence of pathological and regenerative processes induced by PT, thus building on the current understanding of the biological mechanisms of bone. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Bone Cell Function and Interplay in Physiological and Pathological Conditions)
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17 pages, 8925 KiB  
Article
Disruption of Endochondral Ossification and Extracellular Matrix Maturation in an Ex Vivo Rat Femur Organotypic Slice Model Due to Growth Plate Injury
by Vanessa Etschmaier, Muammer Üçal, Birgit Lohberger, Markus Absenger-Novak, Dagmar Kolb, Annelie Weinberg and Ute Schäfer
Cells 2023, 12(13), 1687; https://doi.org/10.3390/cells12131687 - 22 Jun 2023
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1930
Abstract
Postnatal bone fractures of the growth plate (GP) are often associated with regenerative complications such as growth impairment. In order to understand the underlying processes of trauma-associated growth impairment within postnatal bone, an ex vivo rat femur slice model was developed. To achieve [...] Read more.
Postnatal bone fractures of the growth plate (GP) are often associated with regenerative complications such as growth impairment. In order to understand the underlying processes of trauma-associated growth impairment within postnatal bone, an ex vivo rat femur slice model was developed. To achieve this, a 2 mm horizontal cut was made through the GP of rat femur prior to the organotypic culture being cultivated for 15 days in vitro. Histological analysis showed disrupted endochondral ossification, including disordered architecture, increased chondrocyte metabolic activity, and a loss of hypertrophic zone throughout the distal femur. Furthermore, altered expression patterns of Col2α1, Acan, and ColX, and increased chondrocyte metabolic activity in the TZ and MZ at day 7 and day 15 postinjury were observed. STEM revealed the presence of stem cells, fibroblasts, and chondrocytes within the injury site at day 7. In summary, the findings of this study suggest that the ex vivo organotypic GP injury model could be a valuable tool for investigating the underlying mechanisms of GP regeneration post-trauma, as well as other tissue engineering and disease studies. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Bone Cell Function and Interplay in Physiological and Pathological Conditions)
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15 pages, 7513 KiB  
Article
Co-Stimulation of AGEs and LPS Induces Inflammatory Mediators through PLCγ1/JNK/NF-κB Pathway in MC3T3-E1 Cells
by Natsuko Tanabe, Keiko Tomita, Soichiro Manaka, Risa Ichikawa, Tadahiro Takayama, Takayuki Kawato, Misae Ono, Yuma Masai, Akihisa Utsu, Naoto Suzuki and Shuichi Sato
Cells 2023, 12(10), 1383; https://doi.org/10.3390/cells12101383 - 13 May 2023
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2381
Abstract
Advanced glycation end-products (AGEs) are increased under hyperglycemia in vivo and are associated with the onset of diabetes. According to previous studies, AGEs exacerbate inflammatory diseases. However, the mechanism by which AGEs aggravate osteoblast inflammation remains unknown. Therefore, the aim of this study [...] Read more.
Advanced glycation end-products (AGEs) are increased under hyperglycemia in vivo and are associated with the onset of diabetes. According to previous studies, AGEs exacerbate inflammatory diseases. However, the mechanism by which AGEs aggravate osteoblast inflammation remains unknown. Therefore, the aim of this study was to determine the effects of AGEs on the production of inflammatory mediators in MC3T3-E1 cells and the underlying molecular mechanisms. Co-stimulation with AGEs and lipopolysaccharide (LPS) was found to increase the mRNA and protein levels of cyclooxygenase 2 (COX2), interleukin-1α (IL-1α), S100 calcium-binding protein A9 (S100A9), and the production of prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) compared to no stimulation (untreated control) or individual stimulation with LPS or AGEs. In contrast, the phospholipase C (PLC) inhibitor, U73122, inhibited these stimulatory effects. Co-stimulation with AGEs and LPS also increased the nuclear translocation of nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-κB) compared to no stimulation (untreated control) or individual stimulation with LPS or AGE. However, this increase was inhibited by U73122. Co-stimulation with AGEs and LPS-induced phosphorylated phospholipase Cγ1 (p-PLCγ1) and phosphorylated c-Jun N-terminal kinase (p-JNK) expression compared to no stimulation or individual stimulation with LPS or AGEs. U73122 inhibited the effects induced by co-stimulation. siPLCγ1 did not increase the expression of p-JNK and the translocation of NF-κB. Overall, co-stimulation with AGEs and LPS may promote inflammation mediators in MC3T3-E1 cells by activating the nuclear translocation of NF-κB via PLCγ1-JNK activation. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Bone Cell Function and Interplay in Physiological and Pathological Conditions)
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16 pages, 2983 KiB  
Article
Extracellular Release of Citrullinated Vimentin Directly Acts on Osteoclasts to Promote Bone Resorption in a Mouse Model of Periodontitis
by Satoru Shindo, Roodelyne Pierrelus, Atsushi Ikeda, Shin Nakamura, Alireza Heidari, Maria Rita Pastore, Elizabeth Leon, Sunniva Ruiz, Harsh Chheda, Rhea Khatiwala, Tomoki Kumagai, George Tolson, Islam Elderbashy, Kazuhisa Ouhara, Xiaozhe Han, Maria Hernandez, Saynur Vardar-Sengul, Hideki Shiba and Toshihisa Kawai
Cells 2023, 12(8), 1109; https://doi.org/10.3390/cells12081109 - 8 Apr 2023
Cited by 10 | Viewed by 3047
Abstract
Elevated osteoclast (OC)-mediated bone resorption, a common pathological feature between periodontitis and rheumatoid arthritis (RA), implicates a possible mutually shared pathogenesis. The autoantibody to citrullinated vimentin (CV), a representative biomarker of RA, is reported to promote osteoclastogenesis (OC-genesis). However, its effect on OC-genesis [...] Read more.
Elevated osteoclast (OC)-mediated bone resorption, a common pathological feature between periodontitis and rheumatoid arthritis (RA), implicates a possible mutually shared pathogenesis. The autoantibody to citrullinated vimentin (CV), a representative biomarker of RA, is reported to promote osteoclastogenesis (OC-genesis). However, its effect on OC-genesis in the context of periodontitis remains to be elucidated. In an in vitro experiment, the addition of exogenous CV upregulated the development of Tartrate-resistant acid phosphatase (TRAP)-positive multinuclear OCs from mouse bone marrow cells and increased the formation of resorption pits. However, Cl-amidine, an irreversible pan-peptidyl arginine deiminase (PAD) inhibitor, suppressed the production and secretion of CV from RANKL-stimulated OC precursors, suggesting that the citrullination of vimentin occurs in OC precursors. On the other hand, the anti-vimentin neutralizing antibody suppressed in vitro Receptor activator of nuclear factor kappa-Β ligand (RANKL)-induced OC-genesis. The CV-induced upregulation of OC-genesis was abrogated by the Protein kinase C (PKC)-δ inhibitor Rottlerin, accompanied by the downmodulation of OC-genesis-related genes, including Osteoclast stimulatory transmembrane protein (OC-STAMP), TRAP and Matrix Metallopeptidase 9 (MMP9) as well as extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) mitogen-activated protein (MAP)-kinase phosphorylation. Elevated levels of soluble CV and vimentin-bearing mononuclear cells were found in the bone resorption lesions of periodontitis induced in mice in the absence of an anti-CV antibody. Finally, local injection of anti-vimentin neutralizing antibody suppressed the periodontal bone loss induced in mice. Collectively, these results indicated that the extracellular release of CV promoted OC-genesis and bone resorption in periodontitis. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Bone Cell Function and Interplay in Physiological and Pathological Conditions)
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23 pages, 7473 KiB  
Article
Cissus quadrangularis (Hadjod) Inhibits RANKL-Induced Osteoclastogenesis and Augments Bone Health in an Estrogen-Deficient Preclinical Model of Osteoporosis Via Modulating the Host Osteoimmune System
by Zaffar Azam, Leena Sapra, Kalpana Baghel, Niharika Sinha, Rajesh K. Gupta, Vandana Soni, Chaman Saini, Pradyumna K. Mishra and Rupesh K. Srivastava
Cells 2023, 12(2), 216; https://doi.org/10.3390/cells12020216 - 4 Jan 2023
Cited by 13 | Viewed by 5547
Abstract
Osteoporosis is a systemic skeletal disease characterised by low bone mineral density (BMD), degeneration of bone micro-architecture, and impaired bone strength. Cissus quadrangularis (CQ), popularly known as Hadjod (bone setter) in Hindi, is a traditional medicinal herb exhibiting osteoprotective potential in various bone [...] Read more.
Osteoporosis is a systemic skeletal disease characterised by low bone mineral density (BMD), degeneration of bone micro-architecture, and impaired bone strength. Cissus quadrangularis (CQ), popularly known as Hadjod (bone setter) in Hindi, is a traditional medicinal herb exhibiting osteoprotective potential in various bone diseases, especially osteoporosis and fractures. However, the cellular mechanisms underpinning its direct effect on bone health through altering the host immune system have never been elucidated. In the present study, we interrogated the osteoprotective and immunoporotic (the osteoprotective potential of CQ via modulating the host immune system) potential of CQ in preventing inflammatory bone loss under oestrogen-deficient conditions. The current study outlines the CQ’s osteoprotective potential under both ex vivo and in vivo (ovariectomized) conditions. Our ex vivo data demonstrated that, in a dose-dependent manner CQ, suppresses the RANKL-induced osteoclastogenesis (p < 0.001) as well as inhibiting the osteoclast functional activity (p < 0.001) in mouse bone marrow cells (BMCs). Our in vivo µ-CT and flow cytometry data further showed that CQ administration improves bone health and preserves bone micro-architecture by markedly raising the proportion of anti-osteoclastogenic immune cells, such as Th1 (p < 0.05), Th2 (p < 0.05), Tregs (p < 0.05), and Bregs (p < 0.01), while concurrently lowering the osteoclastogenic Th17 cells in bone marrow, mesenteric lymph nodes, Peyer’s patches, and spleen in comparison to the control group. Serum cytokine analysis further supported the osteoprotective and immunoporotic potential of CQ, showing a significant increase in the levels of anti-osteoclastogenic cytokines (p < 0.05) (IFN-γ, IL-4, and IL-10) and a concurrent decrease in the levels of osteoclastogenic cytokines (p < 0.05) (TNF-α, IL-6, and IL-17). In conclusion, our data for the first time delineates the novel cellular and immunological mechanism of the osteoprotective potential of CQ under postmenopausal osteoporotic conditions. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Bone Cell Function and Interplay in Physiological and Pathological Conditions)
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14 pages, 3658 KiB  
Article
Trifloroside Induces Bioactive Effects on Differentiation, Adhesion, Migration, and Mineralization in Pre-Osteoblast MC3T3E-1 Cells
by Hyung-Mun Yun, Bomi Kim, Ji Eun Park and Kyung-Ran Park
Cells 2022, 11(23), 3887; https://doi.org/10.3390/cells11233887 - 1 Dec 2022
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2046
Abstract
Gentianae Scabrae Radix is used in traditional medicine and is known to possess bioactive compounds, including secoiridoid glycosides, flavonoids, lignans, and triterpenes. Trifloroside (TriFs) is a secoiridoid glycoside known for its antioxidant activity; however, its other effects have not been studied. In the [...] Read more.
Gentianae Scabrae Radix is used in traditional medicine and is known to possess bioactive compounds, including secoiridoid glycosides, flavonoids, lignans, and triterpenes. Trifloroside (TriFs) is a secoiridoid glycoside known for its antioxidant activity; however, its other effects have not been studied. In the present study, we investigated the biological effects of TriFs isolated from the roots of Gentianae Scabrae Radix using pre-osteoblast MC3T3E-1 cells. No cellular toxicity was observed with 1 μM TriFs, whereas 5–100 μM TriFs showed a gradual increase in cell viability. Alkaline phosphatase staining and microscopic observations revealed that 1–10 μM TriFs stimulated osteogenic activity during early osteoblast differentiation. Trifloroside also increased mineral apposition during osteoblast maturation. Biochemical analyses revealed that TriFs promoted nuclear RUNX2 expression and localization by stimulating the major osteogenic BMP2-Smad1/5/8-RUNX2 pathway. Trifloroside also increased p-GSK3β, β-catenin, p-JNK, and p-p38, but not Wnt3a, p-AKT, and p-ERK. Moreover, TriFs increased the MMP13 levels and promoted cell migration and adhesion. In contrast, TriFs-induced osteoblast differentiation and maturation had negligible effects on autophagy and necrosis. Our findings suggest that TriFs induces osteogenic effects through differentiation, adhesion, migration, and mineral apposition. Therefore, TriFs is suggested as a potential drug target in osteoblast-mediated bone diseases. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Bone Cell Function and Interplay in Physiological and Pathological Conditions)
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17 pages, 8208 KiB  
Article
Immunomodulatory Effect and Bone Homeostasis Regulation in Osteoblasts Differentiated from hADMSCs via the PD-1/PD-L1 Axis
by Seung-Cheol Lee, Min Kyoung Shin, Bo-Young Jang, Seung-Ho Lee, Min Kim and Jung-Suk Sung
Cells 2022, 11(19), 3152; https://doi.org/10.3390/cells11193152 - 7 Oct 2022
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2811
Abstract
Human mesenchymal stem cells (hMSCs) are promising candidates for stem cell therapy and are known to secrete programmed death-1 (PD-1) ligand 1 (PD-L1) regulating T cell-mediated immunosuppression. Given the limitations of current stem cell therapy approaches, improvements in immunomodulatory capacity and stem cell [...] Read more.
Human mesenchymal stem cells (hMSCs) are promising candidates for stem cell therapy and are known to secrete programmed death-1 (PD-1) ligand 1 (PD-L1) regulating T cell-mediated immunosuppression. Given the limitations of current stem cell therapy approaches, improvements in immunomodulatory capacity and stem cell differentiation efficacy are needed. In this study, we propose novel strategies to overcome the challenges that remain in hMSC-mediated bone regeneration. We found that PD-1 is highly expressed in osteoblasts, and the PD-1/PD-L1 axis mediated the decreased proinflammatory cytokine expressions in differentiated osteoblasts cocultured with human adipose derived mesenchymal stem cells (hADMSCs). Moreover, the decrease was attenuated by PD-1/PD-L1 pathway inhibition. Osteogenic properties including osteogenic gene expression and calcium deposits were increased in osteoblasts cocultured with hADMSCs compared with those that were monocultured. Osteoblasts treated with PD-L1 and exosomes from hADMSCs also exhibited enhanced osteogenic properties, including calcium deposits and osteogenic gene expression. In our cocultured system that mimics the physiological conditions of the bone matrix, the PD-1/PD-L1 axis mediated the increased expression of osteogenic genes, thereby enhancing the osteogenic properties, while the calcium deposits of osteoblasts were maintained. Our results provide the therapeutic potentials and novel roles of the PD-1/PD-L1 axis in bone matrix for modulating the bone properties and immunosuppressive potentials that can aid in the prevention of bone diseases via maintaining bone homeostasis. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Bone Cell Function and Interplay in Physiological and Pathological Conditions)
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Review

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29 pages, 3484 KiB  
Review
Osteometabolism: Metabolic Alterations in Bone Pathologies
by Rupesh K. Srivastava, Leena Sapra and Pradyumna K. Mishra
Cells 2022, 11(23), 3943; https://doi.org/10.3390/cells11233943 - 6 Dec 2022
Cited by 42 | Viewed by 7375
Abstract
Renewing interest in the study of intermediate metabolism and cellular bioenergetics is brought on by the global increase in the prevalence of metabolic illnesses. Understanding of the mechanisms that integrate energy metabolism in the entire organism has significantly improved with the application of [...] Read more.
Renewing interest in the study of intermediate metabolism and cellular bioenergetics is brought on by the global increase in the prevalence of metabolic illnesses. Understanding of the mechanisms that integrate energy metabolism in the entire organism has significantly improved with the application of contemporary biochemical tools for quantifying the fuel substrate metabolism with cutting-edge mouse genetic procedures. Several unexpected findings in genetically altered mice have prompted research into the direction of intermediate metabolism of skeletal cells. These findings point to the possibility of novel endocrine connections through which bone cells can convey their energy status to other metabolic control centers. Understanding the expanded function of skeleton system has in turn inspired new lines of research aimed at characterizing the energy needs and bioenergetic characteristics of these bone cells. Bone-forming osteoblast and bone-resorbing osteoclast cells require a constant and large supply of energy substrates such as glucose, fatty acids, glutamine, etc., for their differentiation and functional activity. According to latest research, important developmental signaling pathways in bone cells are connected to bioenergetic programs, which may accommodate variations in energy requirements during their life cycle. The present review article provides a unique perspective of the past and present research in the metabolic characteristics of bone cells along with mechanisms governing energy substrate utilization and bioenergetics. In addition, we discussed the therapeutic inventions which are currently being utilized for the treatment and management of bone-related diseases such as osteoporosis, rheumatoid arthritis (RA), osteogenesis imperfecta (OIM), etc., by modulating the energetics of bone cells. We further emphasized on the role of GUT-associated metabolites (GAMs) such as short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs), medium-chain fatty acids (MCFAs), indole derivates, bile acids, etc., in regulating the energetics of bone cells and their plausible role in maintaining bone health. Emphasis is importantly placed on highlighting knowledge gaps in this novel field of skeletal biology, i.e., “Osteometabolism” (proposed by our group) that need to be further explored to characterize the physiological importance of skeletal cell bioenergetics in the context of human health and bone related metabolic diseases. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Bone Cell Function and Interplay in Physiological and Pathological Conditions)
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