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Research on Adipose Stem Cells
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Research on Adipose Stem Cells

A topical collection in Cells (ISSN 2073-4409). This collection belongs to the section "Stem Cells".

Viewed by 88345

Editor

Prof. Dr. Bruce A. Bunnell

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Collection Editor
Health Science Center, University of North Texas, Fort Worth, TX, USA
Interests: mesenchymal stem cells; adipose; regeneration; SVF; exosomes; therapy; tissue engineering
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Topical Collection Information

Dear Colleagues,

Stem cell therapies have shown potential benefits in a variety of human diseases. Adipose tissue is a rich source of cells with regenerative potential. Adipose-tissue‐derived cell products, including the stromal vascular fraction (SVF) and stromal/stem cells (ASC), possess the capacity for homing, immunomodulation, promotion of repair, and direct regeneration of damaged tissues, which make them promising therapeutic interventions for numerous diseases. ASCs also produce soluble factors and extravascular vesicles (exosomes and microvesicles) that have been demonstrated to have therapeutic effects. The cargo contained within microvesicles is a complex mix of proteins, lipids, DNA, mRNAs, microRNAs, tRNA, and non-coding RNAs that are delivered to other cells and can have biological impacts. SVF, ASC, and ASC-derived microvesicles are promising candidates as cellular therapies due to their abundance, ease of isolation, and natural mechanisms for mediating tissue regeneration. Pre-clinical and clinical studies indicate that each of them have the potential to improve disease outcomes.

This Topical Collection focused on Adipose Stem Cells seeks original research and review articles with a focus on:

  1. Biological characterization of cell populations with regeneration potential isolated from adipose tissue: SVF and ASCs;
  2. Biological characterization and therapeutic application of microvesicles produced by ASCs;
  3. Studies on mechanisms of action of cells and microvesicles;
  4. Therapeutic applications in pre-clinical models and clinical trials.

Prof. Dr. Bruce A. Bunnell
Collection Editor

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the collection website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Cells is an international peer-reviewed open access semimonthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2700 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • Adipose stem cells (ASCs)
  • Stromal vascular fraction (SVF)
  • Microvesicles
  • Basic biology
  • Mechanisms of action
  • Therapeutics

Published Papers (22 papers)

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2023

Jump to: 2022, 2021, 2020

14 pages, 3089 KiB  
Article
Improving Schwann Cell Differentiation from Human Adipose Stem Cells with Metabolic Glycoengineering
by Jian Du, Zihui Wang, Xiao Liu, Cecilia Hu, Kevin J. Yarema and Xiaofeng Jia
Cells 2023, 12(8), 1190; https://doi.org/10.3390/cells12081190 - 19 Apr 2023
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2434
Abstract
Schwann cells (SCs) are myelinating cells that promote peripheral nerve regeneration. When nerve lesions form, SCs are destroyed, ultimately hindering nerve repair. The difficulty in treating nerve repair is exacerbated due to SC’s limited and slow expansion capacity. Therapeutic use of adipose-derived stem [...] Read more.
Schwann cells (SCs) are myelinating cells that promote peripheral nerve regeneration. When nerve lesions form, SCs are destroyed, ultimately hindering nerve repair. The difficulty in treating nerve repair is exacerbated due to SC’s limited and slow expansion capacity. Therapeutic use of adipose-derived stem cells (ASCs) is emerging in combating peripheral nerve injury due to these cells’ SC differentiation capability and can be harvested easily in large numbers. Despite ASC’s therapeutic potential, their transdifferentiation period typically takes more than two weeks. In this study, we demonstrate that metabolic glycoengineering (MGE) technology enhances ASC differentiation into SCs. Specifically, the sugar analog Ac5ManNTProp (TProp), which modulates cell surface sialylation, significantly improved ASC differentiation with upregulated SC protein S100β and p75NGFR expression and elevated the neurotrophic factors nerve growth factor beta (NGFβ) and glial cell-line-derived neurotrophic factor (GDNF). TProp treatment remarkably reduced the SC transdifferentiation period from about two weeks to two days in vitro, which has the potential to improve neuronal regeneration and facilitate future use of ASCs in regenerative medicine. Full article
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2022

Jump to: 2023, 2021, 2020

21 pages, 5826 KiB  
Article
Adipose-Derived Mesenchymal Stem Cells Alleviate Hypertrophic Scar by Inhibiting Bioactivity and Inducing Apoptosis in Hypertrophic Scar Fibroblasts
by Shiyi Li, Jinxiu Yang, Jiachen Sun and Minliang Chen
Cells 2022, 11(24), 4024; https://doi.org/10.3390/cells11244024 - 12 Dec 2022
Cited by 10 | Viewed by 2658
Abstract
Background: As a fibrotic disease with a high incidence, the pathogenesis of hypertrophic scarring is still not fully understood, and the treatment of this disease is also challenging. In recent years, human adipose-derived mesenchymal stem cells (AD-MSCs) have been considered an effective treatment [...] Read more.
Background: As a fibrotic disease with a high incidence, the pathogenesis of hypertrophic scarring is still not fully understood, and the treatment of this disease is also challenging. In recent years, human adipose-derived mesenchymal stem cells (AD-MSCs) have been considered an effective treatment for hypertrophic scars. This study mainly explored whether the therapeutic effect of AD-MSCs on hypertrophic scars is associated with oxidative-stress-related proteins. Methods: AD-MSCs were isolated from adipose tissues and characterized through flow cytometry and a differentiation test. Afterwards, coculture, cell proliferation, apoptosis, and migration were detected. Western blotting and a quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (qRT–PCR) were used to detect oxidative stress-related genes and protein expression in hypertrophic scar fibroblasts (HSFs). Flow cytometry was used to detect reactive oxygen species (ROS). A nude mouse animal model was established; the effect of AD-MSCs on hypertrophic scars was observed; and hematoxylin and eosin staining, Masson’s staining, and immunofluorescence staining were performed. Furthermore, the content of oxidative-stress-related proteins, including nuclear factor erythroid-2-related factor 2 (Nrf2), heme oxygenase 1 (HO-1), B-cell lymphoma 2(Bcl2), Bcl2-associated X(BAX) and caspase 3, was detected. Results: Our results showed that AD-MSCs inhibited HSFs’ proliferation and migration and promoted apoptosis. Moreover, after coculture, the expression of antioxidant enzymes, including HO-1, in HSFs decreased; the content of reactive oxygen species increased; and the expression of Nrf2 decreased significantly. In animal experiments, we found that, at 14 days after injection of AD-MSCs into human hypertrophic scar tissue blocks that were transplanted onto the dorsum of nude mice, the weight of the tissue blocks decreased significantly. Hematoxylin and eosin staining and Masson’s staining demonstrated a rearrangement of collagen fibers. We also found that Nrf2 and antioxidant enzymes decreased significantly, while apoptotic cells increased after AD-MSC treatment. Conclusions: Our results demonstrated that AD-MSCs efficiently cured hypertrophic scars by promoting the apoptosis of HSFs and by inhibiting their proliferation and migration, which may be related to the inhibition of Nrf2 expression in HSFs, suggesting that AD-MSCs may provide an alternative therapeutic approach for the treatment of hypertrophic scars. Full article
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18 pages, 2880 KiB  
Article
Aberrant Expression of COX-2 and FOXG1 in Infrapatellar Fat Pad-Derived ASCs from Pre-Diabetic Donors
by Benjamen T. O’Donnell, Tia A. Monjure, Sara Al-Ghadban, Clara J. Ives, Michael P. L’Ecuyer, Claire Rhee, Monica Romero-Lopez, Zhong Li, Stuart B. Goodman, Hang Lin, Rocky S. Tuan and Bruce A. Bunnell
Cells 2022, 11(15), 2367; https://doi.org/10.3390/cells11152367 - 1 Aug 2022
Cited by 8 | Viewed by 2833
Abstract
Osteoarthritis (OA) is a degenerative joint disease resulting in limited mobility and severe disability. Type II diabetes mellitus (T2D) is a weight-independent risk factor for OA, but a link between the two diseases has not been elucidated. Adipose stem cells (ASCs) isolated from [...] Read more.
Osteoarthritis (OA) is a degenerative joint disease resulting in limited mobility and severe disability. Type II diabetes mellitus (T2D) is a weight-independent risk factor for OA, but a link between the two diseases has not been elucidated. Adipose stem cells (ASCs) isolated from the infrapatellar fat pad (IPFP) may be a viable regenerative cell for OA treatment. This study analyzed the expression profiles of inflammatory and adipokine-related genes in IPFP-ASCs of non-diabetic (Non-T2D), pre-diabetic (Pre-T2D), and T2D donors. Pre-T2D ASCs exhibited a substantial decrease in levels of mesenchymal markers CD90 and CD105 with no change in adipogenic differentiation compared to Non-T2D and T2D IPFP-ASCs. In addition, Cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2), Forkhead box G1 (FOXG1) expression and prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) secretion were significantly increased in Pre-T2D IPFP-ASCs upon stimulation by interleukin-1 beta (IL-1β). Interestingly, M1 macrophages exhibited a significant reduction in expression of pro-inflammatory markers TNFα and IL-6 when co-cultured with Pre-T2D IPFP-ASCs. These data suggest that the heightened systemic inflammation associated with untreated T2D may prime the IPFP-ASCs to exhibit enhanced anti-inflammatory characteristics via suppressing the IL-6/COX-2 signaling pathway. In addition, the elevated production of PGE2 by the Pre-T2D IPFP-ASCs may also suggest the contribution of pre-diabetic conditions to the onset and progression of OA. Full article
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24 pages, 5307 KiB  
Article
Effects of Adipose-Derived Stem Cells and Their Conditioned Medium in a Human Ex Vivo Wound Model
by Xiao Guo, Christoph Schaudinn, Ulrike Blume-Peytavi, Annika Vogt and Fiorenza Rancan
Cells 2022, 11(7), 1198; https://doi.org/10.3390/cells11071198 - 2 Apr 2022
Cited by 21 | Viewed by 4335
Abstract
Adult stem cells have been extensively investigated for tissue repair therapies. Adipose-derived stem cells (ASCs) were shown to improve wound healing by promoting re-epithelialization and vascularization as well as modulating the inflammatory immune response. In this study, we used ex vivo human skin [...] Read more.
Adult stem cells have been extensively investigated for tissue repair therapies. Adipose-derived stem cells (ASCs) were shown to improve wound healing by promoting re-epithelialization and vascularization as well as modulating the inflammatory immune response. In this study, we used ex vivo human skin cultured in a six-well plate with trans-well inserts as a model for superficial wounds. Standardized wounds were created and treated with allogeneic ASCs, ASCs conditioned medium (ASC-CM), or cell culture medium (DMEM) supplemented with fetal calf serum (FCS). Skin viability (XTT test), histology (hematoxylin and eosin, H and E), β-catenin expression as well as inflammatory mediators and growth factors were monitored over 12 days of skin culture. We observed only a moderate time-dependent decrease in skin metabolic activity while skin morphology was preserved, and re-epithelialization occurred at the wound edges. An increase in β-catenin expression was observed in the newly formed epithelia, especially in the samples treated with ASC-CM. In general, increased growth factors and inflammatory mediators, e.g., hepatocytes growth factor (HGF), platelet-derived growth factor subunit AA (PDGF-AA), IL-1α, IL-7, TNF-α, and IL-10, were observed over the incubation time. Interestingly, different expression profiles were observed for the different treatments. Samples treated with ASC-CM significantly increased the levels of inflammatory cytokines and PDGF-AA with respect to control, whereas the treatment with ASCs in DMEM with 10% FCS resulted in significantly increased levels of fibroblast growth factor-basic (FGF-basic) and moderate increases of immunomodulatory cytokines. These results confirm that the wound microenvironment can influence the type of mediators secreted by ASCs and the mode as to how they improve the wound healing process. Comparative investigations with pre-activated ASCs will elucidate further aspects of the wound healing mechanism and improve the protocols of ACS application. Full article
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2021

Jump to: 2023, 2022, 2020

21 pages, 2501 KiB  
Article
TNFα Mediates Inflammation-Induced Effects on PPARG Splicing in Adipose Tissue and Mesenchymal Precursor Cells
by Simona Cataldi, Marianna Aprile, Daniela Melillo, Inès Mucel, Sophie Giorgetti-Peraldi, Mireille Cormont, Paola Italiani, Matthias Blüher, Jean-François Tanti, Alfredo Ciccodicola and Valerio Costa
Cells 2022, 11(1), 42; https://doi.org/10.3390/cells11010042 - 24 Dec 2021
Cited by 7 | Viewed by 4015
Abstract
Low-grade chronic inflammation and reduced differentiation capacity are hallmarks of hypertrophic adipose tissue (AT) and key contributors of insulin resistance. We identified PPARGΔ5 as a dominant-negative splicing isoform overexpressed in the AT of obese/diabetic patients able to impair adipocyte differentiation and PPARγ activity [...] Read more.
Low-grade chronic inflammation and reduced differentiation capacity are hallmarks of hypertrophic adipose tissue (AT) and key contributors of insulin resistance. We identified PPARGΔ5 as a dominant-negative splicing isoform overexpressed in the AT of obese/diabetic patients able to impair adipocyte differentiation and PPARγ activity in hypertrophic adipocytes. Herein, we investigate the impact of macrophage-secreted pro-inflammatory factors on PPARG splicing, focusing on PPARGΔ5. We report that the epididymal AT of LPS-treated mice displays increased PpargΔ5/cPparg ratio and reduced expression of Pparg-regulated genes. Interestingly, pro-inflammatory factors secreted from murine and human pro-inflammatory macrophages enhance the PPARGΔ5/cPPARG ratio in exposed adipogenic precursors. TNFα is identified herein as factor able to alter PPARG splicing—increasing PPARGΔ5/cPPARG ratio—through PI3K/Akt signaling and SRp40 splicing factor. In line with in vitro data, TNFA expression is higher in the SAT of obese (vs. lean) patients and positively correlates with PPARGΔ5 levels. In conclusion, our results indicate that inflammatory factors secreted by metabolically-activated macrophages are potent stimuli that modulate the expression and splicing of PPARG. The resulting imbalance between canonical and dominant negative isoforms may crucially contribute to impair PPARγ activity in hypertrophic AT, exacerbating the defective adipogenic capacity of precursor cells. Full article
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21 pages, 5095 KiB  
Article
Multipotent Stromal Cells from Subcutaneous Adipose Tissue of Normal Weight and Obese Subjects: Modulation of Their Adipogenic Differentiation by Adenosine A1 Receptor Ligands
by Mariachiara Zuccarini, Catia Lambertucci, Marzia Carluccio, Patricia Giuliani, Maurizio Ronci, Andrea Spinaci, Rosaria Volpini, Renata Ciccarelli and Patrizia Di Iorio
Cells 2021, 10(12), 3560; https://doi.org/10.3390/cells10123560 - 17 Dec 2021
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2719
Abstract
Adenosine A1 receptor (A1R) activation, stimulating lipogenesis and decreasing insulin resistance, could be useful for metabolic syndrome management in obese subjects. Since full A1R agonists induce harmful side-effects, while partial agonists show a better pharmacological profile, we investigated [...] Read more.
Adenosine A1 receptor (A1R) activation, stimulating lipogenesis and decreasing insulin resistance, could be useful for metabolic syndrome management in obese subjects. Since full A1R agonists induce harmful side-effects, while partial agonists show a better pharmacological profile, we investigated the influence of two derivatives of the full A1R agonist 2-chloro-N6-cyclopentyladenosine (CCPA), C1 and C2 behaving as A1R partial agonists in animal models, on the adipogenic differentiation of stromal/stem cells (ASCs) from human subcutaneous adipose tissue, which mainly contribute to increase fat mass in obesity. The ASCs from normal-weight subjects showed increased proliferation and A1R expression but reduced adipogenic differentiation compared to obese individual-derived ASCs. Cell exposure to CCPA, C1, C2 or DPCPX, an A1R antagonist, did not affect ASC proliferation, while mainly C2 and DPCPX significantly decreased adipogenic differentiation of both ASC types, reducing the activity of glycerol-3-phosphate dehydrogenase and the expression of PPARγ and FABP-4, all adipogenic markers, and phosphorylation of Akt in the phosphatidylinositol-3-kinase pathway, which plays a key-role in adipogenesis. While requiring confirmation in in vivo models, our results suggest that A1R partial agonists or antagonists, by limiting ASC differentiation into adipocytes and, thereby, fat mass expansion, could favor development/worsening of metabolic syndrome in obese subjects without a dietary control. Full article
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7 pages, 233 KiB  
Editorial
Adipose Tissue-Derived Mesenchymal Stem Cells
by Bruce A. Bunnell
Cells 2021, 10(12), 3433; https://doi.org/10.3390/cells10123433 - 6 Dec 2021
Cited by 88 | Viewed by 6889
Abstract
The long-held belief about adipose tissue was that it was relatively inert in terms of biological activity. It was believed that its primary role was energy storage; however, that was shattered with the discovery of adipokines. Scientists interested in regenerative medicine then reported [...] Read more.
The long-held belief about adipose tissue was that it was relatively inert in terms of biological activity. It was believed that its primary role was energy storage; however, that was shattered with the discovery of adipokines. Scientists interested in regenerative medicine then reported that adipose tissue is rich in adult stromal/stem cells. Following these initial reports, adipose stem cells (ASCs) rapidly garnered interest for use as potential cellular therapies. The primary advantages of ASCs compared to other mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) include the abundance of the tissue source for isolation, the ease of methodologies for tissue collection and cell isolation, and their therapeutic potential. Studies conducted both in vitro and in vivo have demonstrated that ASCs are multipotent, possessing the ability to differentiate into cells of mesodermal origins, including adipocytes, chondrocytes, osteoblast and others. Moreover, ASCs produce a broad array of cytokines, growth factors, nucleic acids (miRNAs), and other macromolecules into the surrounding milieu by secretion or in the context of microvesicles. The secretome of ASCs has been shown to alter tissue biology, stimulate tissue-resident stem cells, change immune cell activity, and mediate therapeutic outcomes. The quality of ASCs is subject to donor-to-donor variation driven by age, body mass index, disease status and possibly gender and ethnicity. This review discusses adipose stromal/stem cell action mechanisms and their potential utility as cellular therapeutics. Full article
23 pages, 5514 KiB  
Article
Transcriptional Landscaping Identifies a Beige Adipocyte Depot in the Newborn Mouse
by Anh Cuong Hoang, Haidong Yu and Tamás Röszer
Cells 2021, 10(9), 2368; https://doi.org/10.3390/cells10092368 - 9 Sep 2021
Cited by 15 | Viewed by 3835
Abstract
The present study sought to identify gene networks that are hallmarks of the developing inguinal subcutaneous adipose tissue (iWAT) and the interscapular brown adipose tissue (BAT) in the mouse. RNA profiling revealed that the iWAT of postnatal (P) day 6 mice expressed thermogenic [...] Read more.
The present study sought to identify gene networks that are hallmarks of the developing inguinal subcutaneous adipose tissue (iWAT) and the interscapular brown adipose tissue (BAT) in the mouse. RNA profiling revealed that the iWAT of postnatal (P) day 6 mice expressed thermogenic and lipid catabolism transcripts, along with the abundance of transcripts associated with the beige adipogenesis program. This was an unexpected finding, as thermogenic BAT was believed to be the only site of nonshivering thermogenesis in the young mouse. However, the transcriptional landscape of BAT in P6 mice suggests that it is still undergoing differentiation and maturation, and that the iWAT temporally adopts thermogenic and lipolytic potential. Moreover, P6 iWAT and adult (P56) BAT were similar in their expression of immune gene networks, but P6 iWAT was unique in the abundant expression of antimicrobial proteins and virus entry factors, including a possible receptor for SARS-CoV-2. In summary, postnatal iWAT development is associated with a metabolic shift from thermogenesis and lipolysis towards fat storage. However, transcripts of beige-inducing signal pathways including β-adrenergic receptors and interleukin-4 signaling were underrepresented in young iWAT, suggesting that the signals for thermogenic fat differentiation may be different in early postnatal life and in adulthood. Full article
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20 pages, 1392 KiB  
Review
Review: Vaspin (SERPINA12) Expression and Function in Endocrine Cells
by Patrycja Kurowska, Ewa Mlyczyńska, Monika Dawid, Małgorzata Jurek, Dominika Klimczyk, Joelle Dupont and Agnieszka Rak
Cells 2021, 10(7), 1710; https://doi.org/10.3390/cells10071710 - 6 Jul 2021
Cited by 34 | Viewed by 5312
Abstract
Proper functioning of the body depends on hormonal homeostasis. White adipose tissue is now known as an endocrine organ due to the secretion of multiple molecules called adipokines. These proteins exert direct effects on whole body functions, including lipid metabolism, angiogenesis, inflammation, and [...] Read more.
Proper functioning of the body depends on hormonal homeostasis. White adipose tissue is now known as an endocrine organ due to the secretion of multiple molecules called adipokines. These proteins exert direct effects on whole body functions, including lipid metabolism, angiogenesis, inflammation, and reproduction, whereas changes in their level are linked with pathological events, such as infertility, diabetes, and increased food intake. Vaspin-visceral adipose tissue-derived serine protease inhibitor, or SERPINA12 according to serpin nomenclature, is an adipokine discovered in 2005 that is connected to the development of insulin resistance, obesity, and inflammation. A significantly higher amount of vaspin was observed in obese patients. The objective of this review was to summarize the latest findings about vaspin expression and action in endocrine tissues, such as the hypothalamus, pituitary gland, adipose tissue, thyroid, ovary, placenta, and testis, as well as discuss the link between vaspin and pathologies connected with hormonal imbalance. Full article
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11 pages, 1190 KiB  
Article
Regenerative Strategy for Persistent Periprosthetic Leakage around Tracheoesophageal Puncture: Is It an Effective Long-Term Solution?
by Claudio Parrilla, Aurora Almadori, Ylenia Longobardi, Wanda Lattanzi, Marzia Salgarello and Giovanni Almadori
Cells 2021, 10(7), 1695; https://doi.org/10.3390/cells10071695 - 5 Jul 2021
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 3575
Abstract
Autologous tissue-assisted regenerative procedures have been considered effective to close different types of fistula, including the leakage around tracheoesophageal puncture. The aim of this study was to retrospectively review 10 years of lipotransfer for persistent periprosthetic leakage in laryngectomized patients with voice prosthesis. [...] Read more.
Autologous tissue-assisted regenerative procedures have been considered effective to close different types of fistula, including the leakage around tracheoesophageal puncture. The aim of this study was to retrospectively review 10 years of lipotransfer for persistent periprosthetic leakage in laryngectomized patients with voice prosthesis. Clinical records of patients who experienced periprosthetic leakage from December 2009 to December 2019 were reviewed. Patients receiving fat grafting were included. The leakage around the prosthesis was assessed with a methylene blue test. Twenty patients experiencing tracheoesophageal fistula enlargement were treated with fat grafting. At the one-month follow-up, all patients were considered improved with no leakage observed. At six months, a single injection was sufficient to solve 75% of cases (n 15), whereas 25% (n 5) required a second procedure. The overall success rate was 80% (n 16). Results remained stable for a follow-up of 5.54 ± 3.97 years. Fat grafting performed around the voice prosthesis, thanks to its volumetric and regenerative properties, is a valid and lasting option to solve persistent periprosthetic leakage. Full article
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21 pages, 5523 KiB  
Article
Does TBC1D4 (AS160) or TBC1D1 Deficiency Affect the Expression of Fatty Acid Handling Proteins in the Adipocytes Differentiated from Human Adipose-Derived Mesenchymal Stem Cells (ADMSCs) Obtained from Subcutaneous and Visceral Fat Depots?
by Agnieszka Mikłosz, Bartłomiej Łukaszuk, Elżbieta Supruniuk, Kamil Grubczak, Marcin Moniuszko, Barbara Choromańska, Piotr Myśliwiec and Adrian Chabowski
Cells 2021, 10(6), 1515; https://doi.org/10.3390/cells10061515 - 16 Jun 2021
Cited by 9 | Viewed by 3276
Abstract
TBC1D4 (AS160) and TBC1D1 are Rab GTPase-activating proteins that play a key role in the regulation of glucose and possibly the transport of long chain fatty acids (LCFAs) into muscle and fat cells. Knockdown (KD) of TBC1D4 increased CD36/SR-B2 and FABPpm protein expressions [...] Read more.
TBC1D4 (AS160) and TBC1D1 are Rab GTPase-activating proteins that play a key role in the regulation of glucose and possibly the transport of long chain fatty acids (LCFAs) into muscle and fat cells. Knockdown (KD) of TBC1D4 increased CD36/SR-B2 and FABPpm protein expressions in L6 myotubes, whereas in murine cardiomyocytes, TBC1D4 deficiency led to a redistribution of CD36/SR-B2 to the sarcolemma. In our study, we investigated the previously unexplored role of both Rab-GAPs in LCFAs uptake in human adipocytes differentiated from the ADMSCs of subcutaneous and visceral adipose tissue origin. To this end we performed a single- and double-knockdown of the proteins (TBC1D1 and TBC1D4). Herein, we provide evidence that AS160 mediates fatty acid entry into the adipocytes derived from ADMSCs. TBC1D4 KD resulted in quite a few alterations to the cellular phenotype, the most obvious of which was the shift of the CD36/SR-B2 transport protein to the plasma membrane. The above translated into an increased uptake of saturated long-chain fatty acid. Interestingly, we observed a tissue-specific pattern, with more pronounced changes present in the adipocytes derived from subADMSCs. Altogether, our data show that in human adipocytes, TBC1D4, but not TBC1D1, deficiency increases LCFAs transport via CD36/SR-B2 translocation. Full article
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19 pages, 4334 KiB  
Article
Gene Expression Analysis of Environmental Temperature and High-Fat Diet-Induced Changes in Mouse Supraclavicular Brown Adipose Tissue
by Yufeng Shi, Honglei Zhai, Sharon John, Yi-Ting Shen, Yali Ran, Giang Hoang and Miao-Hsueh Chen
Cells 2021, 10(6), 1370; https://doi.org/10.3390/cells10061370 - 2 Jun 2021
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 4003
Abstract
Obesity, a dysregulation of adipose tissue, is a major health risk factor associated with many diseases. Brown adipose tissue (BAT)-mediated thermogenesis can potentially regulate energy expenditure, making it an attractive therapeutic target to combat obesity. Here, we characterize the effects of cold exposure, [...] Read more.
Obesity, a dysregulation of adipose tissue, is a major health risk factor associated with many diseases. Brown adipose tissue (BAT)-mediated thermogenesis can potentially regulate energy expenditure, making it an attractive therapeutic target to combat obesity. Here, we characterize the effects of cold exposure, thermoneutrality, and high-fat diet (HFD) feeding on mouse supraclavicular BAT (scBAT) morphology and BAT-associated gene expression compared to other adipose depots, including the interscapular BAT (iBAT). scBAT was as sensitive to cold induced thermogenesis as iBAT and showed reduced thermogenic effect under thermoneutrality. While both scBAT and iBAT are sensitive to cold, the expression of genes involved in nutrient processing is different. The scBAT also showed less depot weight gain and more single-lipid adipocytes, while the expression of BAT thermogenic genes, such as Ucp1, remained similar or increased more under our HFD feeding regime at ambient and thermoneutral temperatures than iBAT. Together, these findings show that, in addition to its anatomical resemblance to human scBAT, mouse scBAT possesses thermogenic features distinct from those of other adipose depots. Lastly, this study also characterizes a previously unknown mouse deep neck BAT (dnBAT) depot that exhibits similar thermogenic characteristics as scBAT under cold exposure and thermoneutrality. Full article
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10 pages, 2089 KiB  
Article
Beiging Modulates Inflammatory Adipogenesis in Salt-Treated and MEK6–Transfected Adipocytes
by Songjoo Kang and Myoungsook Lee
Cells 2021, 10(5), 1106; https://doi.org/10.3390/cells10051106 - 4 May 2021
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2746
Abstract
To investigate whether the beiging process changes the interactive effects of salt and MEK6 gene on inflammatory adipogenesis, the salt treatment (NaCl 50 mM) and MEK6 transfection of Tg(+/+) cells were performed with white adipocytes (WAT) and beige-like-adipocytes (BLA). BLA induced by [...] Read more.
To investigate whether the beiging process changes the interactive effects of salt and MEK6 gene on inflammatory adipogenesis, the salt treatment (NaCl 50 mM) and MEK6 transfection of Tg(+/+) cells were performed with white adipocytes (WAT) and beige-like-adipocytes (BLA). BLA induced by T3 were confirmed by UCP-1 expression and the MEK6 protein was 3.5 times higher in MEK6 transfected WAT than the control. The adipogenic genes, PPAR-γ and C/EBP-α, were 1.5 times more highly expressed in the salt-treated groups than the non-salt-treated groups, and adipogenesis was greatly increased in Tg(+/+) WAT compared to non-transfected Tg(−/−). The adipogenesis induced by salt treatment and MEK6 transfection was significantly reduced in BLA. The inflammatory adipocytokines, TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-6, were increased in the salt-treated Tg(+/+) WAT, but an anti-inflammation biomarker, the adiponectin/leptin ratio, was reduced in Tg(+/+), to tenth of that in Tg(−/−). However, the production of adipocytokines in WAT was strongly weakened in BLA, although a combination of salt and MEK6 transfection had the most significant effects on inflammation in both WAT and BLA. Oxygen consumption in mitochondria was maximized in salt-treated and MEK6 transfected WAT, but it was decreased by 50% in BLA. In conclusion, beiging controls the synergistic effects of salt and MEK6 on adipogenesis, inflammation, and energy expenditure. Full article
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16 pages, 4289 KiB  
Article
Facial Rejuvenation with Concentrated Lipograft—A 12 Month Follow-Up Study
by Lukas Prantl, Eva Brix, Sally Kempa, Oliver Felthaus, Andreas Eigenberger, Vanessa Brébant, Alexandra Anker and Catharina Strauss
Cells 2021, 10(3), 594; https://doi.org/10.3390/cells10030594 - 8 Mar 2021
Cited by 19 | Viewed by 4597
Abstract
Lipofilling is a popular technique to treat volume loss in aging patients. The isolated adipose tissue is composed of adipocytes and stromal vascular fraction cells, which include adipose-derived stem cells (ASC). We hypothesize that the patient’s wrinkle severity scale (WSS) and patient’s satisfaction [...] Read more.
Lipofilling is a popular technique to treat volume loss in aging patients. The isolated adipose tissue is composed of adipocytes and stromal vascular fraction cells, which include adipose-derived stem cells (ASC). We hypothesize that the patient’s wrinkle severity scale (WSS) and patient’s satisfaction on the global aesthetic improvement scale (GAIS) can be improved after using concentrated lipoaspirate. Fourteen patients (54 years ± 11.09 years) with volume loss in the midface area underwent waterjet-assisted liposuction (Human Med AG, Schwerin, Germany). Fat was centrifuged in an ACP Double Syringe (Arthrex GmbH, Munich, Germany) using Rotofix 32A centrifuge (Andreas Hettich, GmbH & Co.KG, Tuttlingen, Germany). Homogenization was performed using the double syringe and a 1.4 mm female–female luerlock connector. After a second centrifugation, patients received periorbital (PO) and nasolabial (NL) lipografting. ASC count was performed after enzymatical digestion. Vitality of cells was assessed using a resazurin assay. During long-term follow up (12 months, n = 10), we found a high patient’s satisfaction (GAIS 1+/−0.52) and a good improvement of the WSS during short- and long-term follow-up. The ASC count of processed lipoaspirate was 2.1-fold higher than of unprocessed lipoaspirate (p < 0.001). The difference of ASC in sedimented and simply centrifuged lipoaspirate was also significant (p < 0.05). Facial rejuvenation with concentrated fat graft offers good results concerning objective aesthetic outcome and patient’s satisfaction. Full article
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18 pages, 4804 KiB  
Article
Selective Proliferation of Highly Functional Adipose-Derived Stem Cells in Microgravity Culture with Stirred Microspheres
by Takanobu Mashiko, Koji Kanayama, Natsumi Saito, Takako Shirado, Rintaro Asahi, Masanori Mori and Kotaro Yoshimura
Cells 2021, 10(3), 560; https://doi.org/10.3390/cells10030560 - 4 Mar 2021
Cited by 7 | Viewed by 3180
Abstract
Therapeutic effects of adult stem-cell transplantations are limited by poor cell-retention in target organs, and a reduced potential for optimal cell differentiation compared to embryonic stem cells. However, contemporary studies have indicated heterogeneity within adult stem-cell pools, and a novel culturing technique may [...] Read more.
Therapeutic effects of adult stem-cell transplantations are limited by poor cell-retention in target organs, and a reduced potential for optimal cell differentiation compared to embryonic stem cells. However, contemporary studies have indicated heterogeneity within adult stem-cell pools, and a novel culturing technique may address these limitations by selecting those for cell proliferation which are highly functional. Here, we report the preservation of stemness in human adipose-derived stem cells (hASCs) by using microgravity conditions combined with microspheres in a stirred suspension. The cells were bound to microspheres (100−300 μm) and cultured using a wave-stirring shaker. One-week cultures using polystyrene and collagen microspheres increased the proportions of SSEA-3(+) hASCs 4.4- and 4.3-fold (2.7- and 2.9-fold increases in their numbers), respectively, compared to normal culture conditions. These cultured hASCs expressed higher levels of pluripotent markers (OCT4, SOX2, NANOG, MYC, and KLF), and had improved abilities for proliferation, colony formation, network formation, and multiple-mesenchymal differentiation. We believe that this novel culturing method may further enhance regenerative therapies using hASCs. Full article
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15 pages, 3313 KiB  
Article
Based on a Self-Feeder Layer, a Novel 3D Culture Model of Human ADSCs Facilitates Trans-Differentiation of the Spheroid Cells into Neural Progenitor-Like Cells Using siEID3 with a Laminin/Poly-d-lysine Matrix
by Liang Luo, Wei Zhang, Wenjin Chen, Xiaojun Fu, Xujie Wang, Ruxiang Xu and Dahai Hu
Cells 2021, 10(3), 493; https://doi.org/10.3390/cells10030493 - 25 Feb 2021
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 3241
Abstract
Human adipose-derived stromal cells (ADSCs) are receiving unprecedented attention as a potential cellular source for regenerative medicine-based therapies against various diseases and conditions. However, there still have significant issues concerning the translational development of ADSC-based therapies, such as its heterogeneity and being prone [...] Read more.
Human adipose-derived stromal cells (ADSCs) are receiving unprecedented attention as a potential cellular source for regenerative medicine-based therapies against various diseases and conditions. However, there still have significant issues concerning the translational development of ADSC-based therapies, such as its heterogeneity and being prone to aging. We developed a new simple and economical 3D semi-suspended expansion method in which 3D spheroids reside on an ADSC-derived self-feeder cell layer, producing cells with increased population homogeneity and strong stemness and ensuring that the proliferation and differentiation potency of the cells does not become notably reduced after at least ten passages in culture. To check the potential application of the 3D ADSC spheroids, we discovered that the combination of siEID3, which is a small interfering RNA of EP300 inhibitor of differentiation 3 (EID3), and laminin/poly-d-lysine matrix can rapidly result in trans-differentiation of the 3D spheroid cells to neural progenitor-like cells (NPLCs) in approximately 9 days in vitro. This approach provides a multidisciplinary tool for stem cell research and production in mesenchymal stem cell-related fields. Full article
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21 pages, 2368 KiB  
Article
Quiescence, Stemness and Adipogenic Differentiation Capacity in Human DLK1−/CD34+/CD24+ Adipose Stem/Progenitor Cells
by Florian M. Hatzmann, Asim Ejaz, G. Jan Wiegers, Markus Mandl, Camille Brucker, Stefan Lechner, Tina Rauchenwald, Marit Zwierzina, Saphira Baumgarten, Sonja Wagner, Monika Mattesich, Petra Waldegger, Gerhard Pierer and Werner Zwerschke
Cells 2021, 10(2), 214; https://doi.org/10.3390/cells10020214 - 22 Jan 2021
Cited by 13 | Viewed by 5182
Abstract
We explore the status of quiescence, stemness and adipogenic differentiation capacity in adipose stem/progenitor cells (ASCs) ex vivo, immediately after isolation from human subcutaneous white adipose tissue, by sorting the stromal vascular fraction into cell-surface DLK1+/CD34−, DLK1+/CD34 [...] Read more.
We explore the status of quiescence, stemness and adipogenic differentiation capacity in adipose stem/progenitor cells (ASCs) ex vivo, immediately after isolation from human subcutaneous white adipose tissue, by sorting the stromal vascular fraction into cell-surface DLK1+/CD34−, DLK1+/CD34dim and DLK1−/CD34+ cells. We demonstrate that DLK1−/CD34+ cells, the only population exhibiting proliferative and adipogenic capacity, express ex vivo the bonafide quiescence markers p21Cip1, p27Kip1 and p57Kip2 but neither proliferation markers nor the senescence marker p16Ink4a. The pluripotency markers NANOG, SOX2 and OCT4 are barely detectable in ex vivo ASCs while the somatic stemness factors, c-MYC and KLF4 and the early adipogenic factor C/EBPβ are highly expressed. Further sorting of ASCs into DLK1−/CD34+/CD24− and DLK1−/CD34+/CD24+ fractions shows that KLF4 and c-MYC are higher expressed in DLK1−/CD34+/CD24+ cells correlating with higher colony formation capacity and considerably lower adipogenic activity. Proliferation capacity is similar in both populations. Next, we show that ASCs routinely isolated by plastic-adherence are DLK1−/CD34+/CD24+. Intriguingly, CD24 knock-down in these cells reduces proliferation and adipogenesis. In conclusion, DLK1−/CD34+ ASCs in human sWAT exist in a quiescent state, express high levels of somatic stemness factors and the early adipogenic transcription factor C/EBPβ but senescence and pluripotency markers are barely detectable. Moreover, our data indicate that CD24 is necessary for adequate ASC proliferation and adipogenesis and that stemness is higher and adipogenic capacity lower in DLK1−/CD34+/CD24+ relative to DLK1−/CD34+/CD24− subpopulations. Full article
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2020

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14 pages, 5033 KiB  
Article
Simple and Rapid Non-Enzymatic Procedure Allows the Isolation of Structurally Preserved Connective Tissue Micro-Fragments Enriched with SVF
by Alice Busato, Francesco De Francesco, Reetuparna Biswas, Silvia Mannucci, Giamaica Conti, Giulio Fracasso, Anita Conti, Valentina Riccio, Michele Riccio and Andrea Sbarbati
Cells 2021, 10(1), 36; https://doi.org/10.3390/cells10010036 - 29 Dec 2020
Cited by 28 | Viewed by 4736
Abstract
The stromal vascular fraction (SVF) consists of a heterogeneous population of stem and stromal cells, generally obtained from adipose tissue by enzymatic digestion. For human cell-based therapies, mechanical process methods to obtain SVF represent an advantageous approach because they have fewer regulatory restrictions [...] Read more.
The stromal vascular fraction (SVF) consists of a heterogeneous population of stem and stromal cells, generally obtained from adipose tissue by enzymatic digestion. For human cell-based therapies, mechanical process methods to obtain SVF represent an advantageous approach because they have fewer regulatory restrictions for their clinical use. The aim of this study was to characterize a novel commercial system for obtaining SVF from adipose tissue by a mechanical approach without substantial manipulations. Lipoaspirate samples collected from 27 informed patients were processed by a simple and fast mechanical system (by means of Hy-Tissue SVF). The Hy-Tissue SVF product contained a free cell fraction and micro-fragments of stromal connective tissue. The enzymatic digestion of the micro-fragments increased the yield of free cells (3.2 times) and CFU-F (2.4 times). Additionally, 10% of free cells from SVF were positive for CD34+, suggesting the presence of endothelial cells, pericytes, and potential adipose-derived stem cells (ADSC). Moreover, the SVF cells were able to proliferate and differentiate in vitro toward adipocytes, osteocytes, and chondrocytes. The immunophenotypic analysis of expanded cells showed positivity for typical mesenchymal stem cell markers. The Hy-Tissue SVF system allows the isolation of stromal vascular fraction, making this product of potential interest in regenerative medicine. Full article
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15 pages, 3075 KiB  
Article
Adipose-Derived Stem Cells from Obese Donors Polarize Macrophages and Microglia toward a Pro-Inflammatory Phenotype
by Mark A. A. Harrison, Rachel M. Wise, Brooke P. Benjamin, Emily M. Hochreiner, Omair A. Mohiuddin and Bruce A. Bunnell
Cells 2021, 10(1), 26; https://doi.org/10.3390/cells10010026 - 25 Dec 2020
Cited by 19 | Viewed by 4139
Abstract
Macrophages and microglia represent the primary phagocytes and first line of defense in the peripheral and central immune systems. They activate and polarize into a spectrum of pro- and anti-inflammatory phenotypes in response to various stimuli. This activation is tightly regulated to balance [...] Read more.
Macrophages and microglia represent the primary phagocytes and first line of defense in the peripheral and central immune systems. They activate and polarize into a spectrum of pro- and anti-inflammatory phenotypes in response to various stimuli. This activation is tightly regulated to balance the appropriate immune response with tissue repair and homeostasis. Disruption of this balance results in inflammatory disease states and tissue damage. Adipose stem cells (ASCs) have great therapeutic potential because of the potent immunomodulatory capabilities which induce the polarization of microglia and macrophages to the anti-inflammatory, M2, phenotype. In this study, we examined the effects of donor heterogeneity on ASC function. Specifically, we investigated the impact of donor obesity on ASC stemness and immunomodulatory abilities. Our findings revealed that ASCs from obese donors (ObASCs) exhibited reduced stem cell characteristics when compared to ASCs from lean donors (LnASCs). We also found that ObASCs promote a pro-inflammatory phenotype in murine macrophage and microglial cells, as indicated by the upregulated expression of pro-inflammatory genes, increased nitric oxide pathway activity, and impaired phagocytosis and migration. These findings highlight the importance of considering individual donor characteristics such as obesity when selecting donors and cells for use in ASC therapeutic applications and regenerative medicine. Full article
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14 pages, 3507 KiB  
Article
Safety and Tolerability of Stromal Vascular Fraction Combined with β-Tricalcium Phosphate in Posterior Lumbar Interbody Fusion: Phase I Clinical Trial
by Kyoung-Tae Kim, Kwang Gi Kim, Un Yong Choi, Sang Heon Lim, Young Jae Kim, Seil Sohn, Seung Hun Sheen, Chan Yeong Heo and Inbo Han
Cells 2020, 9(10), 2250; https://doi.org/10.3390/cells9102250 - 8 Oct 2020
Cited by 10 | Viewed by 3784
Abstract
The rates of pseudarthrosis remain high despite recent advances in bone graft substitutes for spinal fusion surgery. The aim of this single center, non-randomized, open-label clinical trial was to determine the feasibility of combined use of stromal vascular fraction (SVF) and β-tricalcium phosphate [...] Read more.
The rates of pseudarthrosis remain high despite recent advances in bone graft substitutes for spinal fusion surgery. The aim of this single center, non-randomized, open-label clinical trial was to determine the feasibility of combined use of stromal vascular fraction (SVF) and β-tricalcium phosphate (β-TCP) for patients who require posterior lumbar interbody fusion (PLIF) and pedicle screw fixation. Two polyetheretherketone (PEEK) cages were inserted into the intervertebral space following complete removal of the intervertebral disc. The PEEK cage (SVF group) on the right side of the patient was filled with β-TCP in combination with SVF, and the cage on the left side (control group) was filled with β-TCP alone. Fusion rate and cage subsidence were assessed by lumbar spine X-ray and CT at 6 and 12 months postoperatively. At the 6-month follow-up, 54.5% of the SVF group (right-sided cages) and 18.2% of the control group (left-sided cages) had radiologic evidence of bone fusion (p = 0.151). The 12-month fusion rate of the right-sided cages was 100%, while that of the left-sided cages was 91.6% (p = 0.755). Cage subsidence was not observed. Perioperative combined use of SVF with β-TCP is feasible and safe in patients who require spinal fusion surgery, and it has the potential to increase the early bone fusion rate following spinal fusion surgery. Full article
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24 pages, 4226 KiB  
Article
Development and Validation of a Fully GMP-Compliant Process for Manufacturing Stromal Vascular Fraction: A Cost-Effective Alternative to Automated Methods
by Pauline François, Laurent Giraudo, Julie Veran, Baptiste Bertrand, Chloé Dumoulin, Houssein Aboudou, Fanny Grimaud, Marie Vogtensperger, Mélanie Velier, Laurent Arnaud, Luc Lyonnet, Stéphanie Simoncini, Benjamin Guillet, Françoise Dignat-George, Jérémy Magalon and Florence Sabatier
Cells 2020, 9(10), 2158; https://doi.org/10.3390/cells9102158 - 24 Sep 2020
Cited by 7 | Viewed by 3767
Abstract
The therapeutic use of adipose-derived stromal vascular fraction (SVF) is expanding in multiple pathologies. Various processes have been proposed for manufacturing SVF but they must be revisited based on advanced therapy medicinal product (ATMP) regulations. We report here the development and validation of [...] Read more.
The therapeutic use of adipose-derived stromal vascular fraction (SVF) is expanding in multiple pathologies. Various processes have been proposed for manufacturing SVF but they must be revisited based on advanced therapy medicinal product (ATMP) regulations. We report here the development and validation of a fully good manufacturing practices (GMP)-compliant protocol for the isolation of SVF. Adipose tissue was collected from healthy volunteers undergoing lipoaspiration. The optimal conditions of collagenase digestion and washing were determined based on measurements of SVF cell viability, yield recovery, and cell subset distribution. Comparability of the SVF obtained using the newly developed manufacturing process (n = 6) and the Celution-based automated method (n = 33), used as a reference, was established using inter-donor analyses. Characteristics of SVF (n = 5) generated using both manufacturing protocols were analyzed for an intra-donor comparison. In addition, these comparisons also included the determination of colony-forming unit fibroblast frequency, in vitro angiogenic activity, and in vivo regenerative effects in a mouse ischemic cutaneous wound model. We successfully developed a process for the generation of SVF presenting higher cell viability and yield recovery compared to the Celution device-based protocol. Characteristics of the SVF including phenotype, capacity for angiogenesis, and wound-healing promotion attested to the comparability of the two manufacturing processes. We validated an optimized non-automated process that should allow for a GMP-compliant, more affordable, and reduced-cost strategy to exploit the potential of SVF-based regenerative therapies. Full article
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13 pages, 2345 KiB  
Article
Treatment of Grade 3 and 4 Osteoarthritis with Intraoperatively Separated Adipose Tissue-Derived Stromal Vascular Fraction: A Comparative Case Series
by Denis Simunec, Honey Salari and Juliane Meyer
Cells 2020, 9(9), 2096; https://doi.org/10.3390/cells9092096 - 14 Sep 2020
Cited by 24 | Viewed by 3870
Abstract
Osteoarthritis (OA) is the most common form of arthritis of the joints. The stromal vascular fraction (SVF) is a regenerative cell population that can be isolated from adipose tissue. It is the immunomodulatory properties of the stromal vascular fraction that make it a [...] Read more.
Osteoarthritis (OA) is the most common form of arthritis of the joints. The stromal vascular fraction (SVF) is a regenerative cell population that can be isolated from adipose tissue. It is the immunomodulatory properties of the stromal vascular fraction that make it a promising candidate for the regenerative treatment of OA. Patients with grade 3 and 4 osteoarthritis were treated with the stromal vascular fraction with and without platelet-rich plasma (PRP) and followed up on their Knee Injury and Osteoarthritis Outcome Score (KOOS) score for 12 months, with MRI and subjective evaluation of the procedure. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) revealed a widening of the joint space, a restructuring of the cartilage, and an alleviation of effusions in the treated joints. In three of the four treatment groups, a substantial improvement of the KOOS scores was documented at the 12-month follow-up time point. According to the subjective evaluation, 67% of the patients were satisfied or very satisfied with the procedure and would recommend it to others. No serious adverse events or unwanted side effects related to the SVF treatment were observed or reported. Prior to an invasive artificial joint replacement, the treatment of arthritic knee joints with the intraarticular injection of autologous adipose tissue-derived SVF should be considered a regenerative treatment option. Full article
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