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21 pages, 11372 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Design and Practical Implementation of Microgrid Inverter Control Using TMS320F28335 Microcontroller with Improvement in Electrical Power Quality

by Nicolás Magro, Jesús R. Vázquez and Reyes Sánchez-Herrera

Electronics 2025, 14(2), 319; https://doi.org/10.3390/electronics14020319 - 15 Jan 2025

Viewed by 449

Abstract

Nowadays, the proliferation of distributed renewable energy sources is a fact. A microgrid is a good solution to self-manage the energy generation and consumption of electrical loads and sources from the point of view of the consumer as well as the power system [...] Read more.

Nowadays, the proliferation of distributed renewable energy sources is a fact. A microgrid is a good solution to self-manage the energy generation and consumption of electrical loads and sources from the point of view of the consumer as well as the power system operator. To make a microgrid as versatile as necessary to carry that out, a flexible inverter is necessary. In this paper, an algorithm is presented to control an inverter and make it complete and versatile to work in grid-connected and in isolated modes, injecting or receiving power from the grid and always compensating the harmonics generated by the loads in the microgrid. With this inverter, the microgrid can work while optimizing its energy consumption or according to the power system operator instructions. The inverter proposed is tested in a designed Matlab/Simulink simulation platform. After that, an experimental platform designed and built ad hoc, including a DC source, AC linear and non-linear loads, and a Semikron power inverter, is used to test the proposed control strategies. The results corroborate the good system performance. The replicability of the system is guaranteed by the use of low-cost devices in the implementation of the control. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Power Converter Design, Control and Applications)

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49 pages, 1567 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Classification of Design Methodologies of Dual Active Bridge-Based Resonant Converters for Battery Energy Storage Systems

by Rafael Amadeo García Pérez, Jesús Muñoz-Cruzado-Alba, Eduardo Galván Díez and Juan Manuel Carrasco Solís

Electronics 2024, 13(23), 4748; https://doi.org/10.3390/electronics13234748 - 30 Nov 2024

Viewed by 711

Abstract

Optimized guidelines for the design of power converters are crucial to achieve the expected goals in terms of performance, efficiency, power density, etc. Therefore, they are the basis for industrial success or failure. Resonant converters based on Dual Active Bridges (DABs) are particularly [...] Read more.

Optimized guidelines for the design of power converters are crucial to achieve the expected goals in terms of performance, efficiency, power density, etc. Therefore, they are the basis for industrial success or failure. Resonant converters based on Dual Active Bridges (DABs) are particularly sensitive to the design process due to their inherently nonlinear behaviour; thus, they are in the spotlight for research and development at present. Plenty of design methodologies can be found in the literature but each of them is specific to the perspective of the authors, the performed analysis, the assumptions made, and the design objectives. It is critical to understand the Key Performance Indicators (KPIs) and design methodologies of a resonant DAB converter. There is a significant lack of articles that concisely and clearly summarize this. Different design methodologies are analyzed and compared with respect to the most important KPIs, and the most relevant demos and experiences are pointed out so that designers can select the best choice for their assignment. These results will help designers understand the design methodologies and carefully choose one based on the application, analysis, and design objectives. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Power Converter Design, Control and Applications)

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16 pages, 29661 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

6.5 kV SiC PiN and JBS Diodes’ Comparison in Hybrid and Full SiC Switch Topologies

by Lucas Barroso Spejo, Lars Knoll and Renato Amaral Minamisawa

Electronics 2024, 13(22), 4548; https://doi.org/10.3390/electronics13224548 - 19 Nov 2024

Viewed by 665

Abstract

This work investigates the performance of state-of-the-art non-commercial 6.5 kV Silicon Carbide (SiC) PiN and Junction Barrier Schottky (JBS) diodes in hybrid (Si IGBT with SiC diode) and full SiC (SiC MOSFET with SiC diode) switch topologies. The static and dynamic performance has [...] Read more.

This work investigates the performance of state-of-the-art non-commercial 6.5 kV Silicon Carbide (SiC) PiN and Junction Barrier Schottky (JBS) diodes in hybrid (Si IGBT with SiC diode) and full SiC (SiC MOSFET with SiC diode) switch topologies. The static and dynamic performance has been systematically evaluated at distinct temperatures, gate resistances and currents for each configuration. The SiC PiN diode presented higher current density capability and lower leakage current density than the JBS diode. Moreover, in most cases, the SiC PiN diode-based topologies demonstrated slightly higher total switching losses compared to the SiC JBS diode-based equivalent configurations. A loadability analysis in a three-level NPC converter is presented to evaluate the potential of each configuration in a converter application. The SiC PiN technology presented a 25% power extension compared to the SiC JBS technology with similar efficiency at typical industrial drives switching frequency operation when comparing same-active-area diode technologies. Finally, a long-term reliability test (H3TRB) is presented to demonstrate the SiC PiN diode technology’s potential for operation in harsh environments. Such characteristics show the advantage of the 6.5 kV SiC PiN diode when a high current density (>100 A/cm²), high efficiency and reliability are required. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Power Converter Design, Control and Applications)

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11 pages, 1864 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Evaluating Photovoltaic Conversion Performance under Artificial Indoor Lighting

by Cecilia Guillén

Electronics 2024, 13(17), 3378; https://doi.org/10.3390/electronics13173378 - 26 Aug 2024

Viewed by 846

Abstract

Several photovoltaic technologies, based on different semiconductor absorbers with band-gap energy in the range E_g = 1.0–1.5 eV are currently sharing the market for outdoor applications. These photovoltaic cells are designed to achieve an optimal photovoltaic conversion under solar illumination (represented by [...] Read more.

Several photovoltaic technologies, based on different semiconductor absorbers with band-gap energy in the range E_g = 1.0–1.5 eV are currently sharing the market for outdoor applications. These photovoltaic cells are designed to achieve an optimal photovoltaic conversion under solar illumination (represented by the standard AM1.5 global spectrum), but their performance changes under different artificial indoor lights. Here, the detailed balance principle that was first applied for an ideal photovoltaic absorber under solar radiation is now used by considering the actual spectra of four typical indoor lamps: incandescent, halogen, metal halide and white LED. For each particular illumination source, the theoretical maximum for short-circuit current, open-circuit voltage and maximum power point have been calculated and represented as a function of the absorber band-gap energy. Furthermore, the optical absorption spectra of some semiconductors with optimal solar conversion efficiencies are used to estimate their comparative performance under the various artificial light sources. It has been found that wide band-gap absorbers (E_g~1.9 eV) are needed to achieve a light-to-electricity conversion efficiency of 60% under LED illumination or 31% with metal halide bulbs, while a lowest band-gap energy of about 0.8 eV is required to obtain a maximum efficiency of 24% with incandescent and halogen lamps. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Power Converter Design, Control and Applications)

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19 pages, 6183 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Performance Enhancement in LC Series Resonant Inverters with Current-Controlled Variable-Transformer and Phase Shift for Induction Heating

by Juan L. Bellido, Vicente Esteve and José Jordán

Electronics 2024, 13(15), 2911; https://doi.org/10.3390/electronics13152911 - 24 Jul 2024

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 995

Abstract

This article presents an analysis of a converter based on an LC resonant inverter for induction heating applications. It employs a current-controlled variable transformer (VT) in conjunction with phase shift regulation (PS) to operate at a fixed frequency close to the resonance frequency. [...] Read more.

This article presents an analysis of a converter based on an LC resonant inverter for induction heating applications. It employs a current-controlled variable transformer (VT) in conjunction with phase shift regulation (PS) to operate at a fixed frequency close to the resonance frequency. The converter maintains a small switching angle, enabling substantial load variations without sacrificing zero voltage switching (ZVS) for the transistors. This innovative method enhances the inverter’s performance across the entire operating range. Additionally, a new design of the transformer structure with a variable ratio will be analyzed, enabling mathematical modeling. The obtained results demonstrate a performance exceeding 99%. Both the inverter and variable transformer designs were experimentally validated using a 15 kW, 200 kHz converter for induction heating applications with silicon carbide (SiC) MOSFETs. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Power Converter Design, Control and Applications)

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14 pages, 4671 KiB

Open AccessArticle

State of the Art and Future Trends in Monitoring for Industrial Induction Heating Applications

by Vicente Esteve, Juan L. Bellido and José Jordán

Electronics 2024, 13(13), 2591; https://doi.org/10.3390/electronics13132591 - 1 Jul 2024

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1578

Abstract

Induction surface hardening (ISH) processes are widely used in the heat treatment of numerous industrial components, especially in the automotive industry. Since this industry operates under very demanding quality standards, it is crucial for these heat treatment processes to meet rigorous specifications to [...] Read more.

Induction surface hardening (ISH) processes are widely used in the heat treatment of numerous industrial components, especially in the automotive industry. Since this industry operates under very demanding quality standards, it is crucial for these heat treatment processes to meet rigorous specifications to ensure the safety and reliability of the produced components. This implies the precise and repeatable control of certain parameters throughout the manufacturing process of each of the parts treated, through precise and reliable instrumentation in electromagnetically harsh environments. The main objective of this work is to define the monitoring process for an industrial IHS application, determining the control needs and the methods of measurement, recording, and verification of the parameters that ensure the quality of the process. This paper describes the monitoring process of induction surface hardening, emphasizing the use of sensors and modern measurement and control systems. A comprehensive monitoring system supported by a programmable logic controller (PLC) and mixed acquisition and instrumentation systems (analog and digital) implemented with a high-performance Field Programmable Gate Array (FPGA) will be presented. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Power Converter Design, Control and Applications)

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32 pages, 16514 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Impact of Solder Voids on IGBT Thermal Behavior: A Multi-Methodological Approach

by Omid Alavi, Ward De Ceuninck and Michaël Daenen

Electronics 2024, 13(11), 2188; https://doi.org/10.3390/electronics13112188 - 4 Jun 2024

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1190

Abstract

This study investigates the thermal behavior of Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistors (IGBTs) with a focus on the influence of solder voids within the device. Utilizing a combination of Finite Element Method (FEM) simulations, X-ray imaging, and SEM-EDX analysis, we accurately modeled the internal [...] Read more.

This study investigates the thermal behavior of Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistors (IGBTs) with a focus on the influence of solder voids within the device. Utilizing a combination of Finite Element Method (FEM) simulations, X-ray imaging, and SEM-EDX analysis, we accurately modeled the internal structure of IGBTs to assess the impact of void characteristics on thermal resistance. The findings reveal that the presence and characteristics of solder voids—particularly their size, number, and distribution—significantly affect the thermal resistance of IGBT devices. Experimental measurements validate the FEM model’s accuracy, confirming that voids disrupt the heat flow path, which can lead to increased thermal resistance and potential device failure. Five regression models, including Gaussian process regression (GPR) and neural networks, were employed to predict the thermal resistance based on void characteristics, with the GPR models demonstrating superior performance. The optimal GPR RQ model consistently provided accurate predictions with an RMSE of 0.0050 and R² of 0.9728. Using the void percentage as the only input parameter for the regression models significantly impacted the prediction accuracy, showing the importance of the void extraction method. This study shows the necessity of minimizing solder voids and offers a robust methodological framework for a better prediction of the reliability of IGBTs. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Power Converter Design, Control and Applications)

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18 pages, 6250 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Impact of Chaos on MOSFET Thermal Stress and Lifetime

by Cristina Morel and Jean-Yves Morel

Electronics 2024, 13(9), 1649; https://doi.org/10.3390/electronics13091649 - 25 Apr 2024

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1251

Abstract

The reliability of power electronic switching components is of great concern for many researchers. For their usage in many mission profiles, it is crucial for them to perform for the duration of their intended lifetime; however, they can fail because of thermal stress. [...] Read more.

The reliability of power electronic switching components is of great concern for many researchers. For their usage in many mission profiles, it is crucial for them to perform for the duration of their intended lifetime; however, they can fail because of thermal stress. Thus, it is essential to analyze their thermal performance. Non-linear switching action, bifurcation and chaotic events may occur in DC-DC power converters. Consequently, they show different behaviors when their parameters change. However, this is an opportunity to study these bifurcation phenomena and the existence of chaos, e.g., in boost converters, on their performance as the effects of load variations (mission profiles) on the system’s behavior. These variations generate many non-linear phenomena such as periodic behavior, repeated period-doubling bifurcations and chaos in the MOSFET drain-source current. Thus, we propose, for the first time, an analysis of the influence of chaos on the junction temperature. First of all, this paper provides a step-by-step procedure to establish an electrothermal model of a C2M0080120D MOSFET with integrated power loss. Then, the junction temperature is estimated by computing the power losses and a thermal impedance model of the switch. Additionally, this model is used to investigate the bifurcation and chaotic behavior of the MOSFET junction temperature. The paper contributes by providing a mathematical model to calculate several coefficients based on experimental data and thermal oscillations. Estimation of the number of cycles to failure is given by the Coffin–Manson equation, while temperature cycles are counted using the rainflow counting algorithm. Further, the accumulated damage results are calculated using the Miner’s model. Finally, a comparison is made between the damage accumulated during different mission profiles: significant degradation of the MOSFET’s lifetime is pointed out for chaotic currents compared to periodic ones. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Power Converter Design, Control and Applications)

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27 pages, 810 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Tensor Product Alternatives for Nonlinear Field-Oriented Control of Induction Machines

by Miklós Kuczmann and Krisztián Horváth

Electronics 2024, 13(7), 1405; https://doi.org/10.3390/electronics13071405 - 8 Apr 2024

Viewed by 1248

Abstract

The paper presents a nonlinear field-oriented control technique based on the tensor product representation of the nonlinear induction machine model and the solvability of linear matrix inequalities. The nonlinear model has 32 quasi linear parameter-varying equivalent variants, and it is shown that only [...] Read more.

The paper presents a nonlinear field-oriented control technique based on the tensor product representation of the nonlinear induction machine model and the solvability of linear matrix inequalities. The nonlinear model has 32 quasi linear parameter-varying equivalent variants, and it is shown that only half of the models result in feasible controller. Two control goals are realized: torque control and speed control. The controller is a nonlinear state feedback controller completed by integral action. A new block diagram is investigated for speed control. The controller gains are designed by the solution of linear matrix inequalities to solve the Lyapunov inequality to obtain a stable and fast response and constraints on the control signal. The presented methods are verified and compared by simulations. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Power Converter Design, Control and Applications)

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23 pages, 7635 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Bidirectional Converter System in Dual Active Bridge Topology for a Hydrogen Tank

by Marian Kampik, Grzegorz Jarek, Michał Jeleń, Jarosław Michalak, Marcin Zygmanowski and Marcin Fice

Electronics 2024, 13(1), 156; https://doi.org/10.3390/electronics13010156 - 29 Dec 2023

Viewed by 1886

Abstract

The paper presents a Dual Active Bridge (DAB) converter operating as an interface between the LiFePo4 battery and the fuel cell/hydrogen generator. The hydrogen tank can increase the stored energy of the battery system. Among the main requirements for a converter is the [...] Read more.

The paper presents a Dual Active Bridge (DAB) converter operating as an interface between the LiFePo4 battery and the fuel cell/hydrogen generator. The hydrogen tank can increase the stored energy of the battery system. Among the main requirements for a converter is the need to transfer power of up to 10 kW and operate with widely changing voltages on both sides of the converter. The design of the power electronic part and passive components of the converter is deeply discussed. Next, the influence of the wide voltage range on the operation of the converter is depicted, including its impact on power losses and current values. Different topological modifications for power loss reduction are presented and experimentally verified. Finally, a simple modification of the control system, giving the possibility of increasing efficiency, is briefly presented. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Power Converter Design, Control and Applications)

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Review

Jump to: Research

27 pages, 14453 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Busbar Design for High-Power SiC Converters

by Zibo Chen and Alex Q. Huang

Electronics 2024, 13(23), 4758; https://doi.org/10.3390/electronics13234758 - 2 Dec 2024

Viewed by 802

Abstract

Busbars are critical components that connect high-current and high-voltage subcomponents in high-power converters. This paper reviews the latest busbar design methodologies and offers design recommendations for both laminated and PCB-based busbars. Silicon Carbide (SiC) power devices switch at much higher speeds compared to [...] Read more.

Busbars are critical components that connect high-current and high-voltage subcomponents in high-power converters. This paper reviews the latest busbar design methodologies and offers design recommendations for both laminated and PCB-based busbars. Silicon Carbide (SiC) power devices switch at much higher speeds compared to traditional silicon devices, making them more susceptible to parasitic elements within the busbar. In high-frequency SiC converters, using thicker copper offers limited improvement in high-frequency current handling due to the reduced skin depth at such frequencies. PCB busbars, however, provide several advantages, including reduced loop inductance, enhanced high-frequency current capacity, simplified assembly, and lower costs. Additionally, they enable the integration of components such as sensors, capacitors, and resistors, which can further optimize overall system performance. This paper also presents optimized busbar designs for both module-based and discrete device-based SiC high-power converters, comparing various SiC power module packages and offering design insights. Finally, this paper showcases a 75 kW three-phase inverter utilizing a PCB busbar, demonstrating its potential for achieving high power density and cost-effectiveness in discrete SiC device-based high-power converters. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Power Converter Design, Control and Applications)

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38 pages, 13063 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Power Converters for Green Hydrogen: State of the Art and Perspectives

by Gianpaolo Vitale

Electronics 2024, 13(22), 4565; https://doi.org/10.3390/electronics13224565 - 20 Nov 2024

Viewed by 909

Abstract

This paper provides a comprehensive review and outlook on power converters devised for supplying polymer electrolyte membrane (PEM) electrolyzers from photovoltaic sources. The produced hydrogen, known as green hydrogen, is a promising solution to mitigate the dependence on fossil fuels. The main topologies [...] Read more.

This paper provides a comprehensive review and outlook on power converters devised for supplying polymer electrolyte membrane (PEM) electrolyzers from photovoltaic sources. The produced hydrogen, known as green hydrogen, is a promising solution to mitigate the dependence on fossil fuels. The main topologies of power conversion systems are discussed and classified; a loss analysis emphasizes the issues concerning the electrolyzer supply. The attention is focused on power converters of rated power up to a tenth of a kW, since it is a promising field for a short-term solution implementing green hydrogen production as a decentralized. It is also encouraged by the proliferation of relatively cheap photovoltaic low-power plants. The main converters proposed by the literature in the last few years and realized for practical applications are analyzed, highlighting their key characteristics and focusing on the parameters useful for designers. Future perspectives are addressed concerning the availability of new wide-bandgap devices and hard-to-abate sectors with reference to the whole conversion chain. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Power Converter Design, Control and Applications)

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22 pages, 10725 KiB

Open AccessReview

Hardware Testing Methodologies for Wide Bandgap High-Power Converters

by Zibo Chen, Zhicheng Guo, Chen Chen and Alex Q. Huang

Electronics 2024, 13(19), 3918; https://doi.org/10.3390/electronics13193918 - 3 Oct 2024

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1114

Abstract

Wide bandgap (WBG) power semiconductor devices are increasingly replacing silicon IGBTs in high-power and high-voltage power electronics applications. However, there is a significant gap in the literature regarding efficient testing methodologies for high-power and high-voltage converters under constrained laboratory resources. This paper addresses [...] Read more.

Wide bandgap (WBG) power semiconductor devices are increasingly replacing silicon IGBTs in high-power and high-voltage power electronics applications. However, there is a significant gap in the literature regarding efficient testing methodologies for high-power and high-voltage converters under constrained laboratory resources. This paper addresses this gap by presenting comprehensive, hardware-focused testing methodologies for high-power and high-voltage WBG power semiconductor-based converter bring-up before the control validation phase steps in. The proposed methods enable thorough evaluation and validation of converter hardware, including device switching characteristics, driving circuit functionality, thermal management performance, insulation integrity, and sustained operation at full power. We utilized the double pulse test (DPT) to characterize switching performance in a two-level phase leg configuration, extract circuit parasitics, and validate magnetic components. The DPT was further applied to optimize gate driving circuits, validate overcurrent protection mechanisms, and measure device on-resistance. Additionally, a multicycle test was introduced to rapidly assess steady-state converter performance and estimate efficiency. Recognizing the critical role of thermal management in high-power converters, our methodologies extend to the experimental extraction of key thermal parameters—such as junction-to-ambient thermal resistance and thermal capacitance—via a heat loss injection method. A correlation method between temperature sensor measurements and junction temperature is presented to enhance the accuracy of device temperature monitoring during tests. To ensure reliability and safety, dielectric withstand tests and partial discharge measurements were conducted at both component and converter levels under conventional 60 Hz sinusoidal and high-frequency PWM waveforms. Finally, we highlight the importance of testing converters under full voltage, current, and thermal conditions through power circulating tests with minimal power consumption, applicable to both non-isolated and isolated high-power converters. Practical examples are provided to demonstrate the effectiveness and applicability of these hardware testing methodologies. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Power Converter Design, Control and Applications)

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38 pages, 24746 KiB

Open AccessReview

Review of DC Motor Modeling and Linear Control: Theory with Laboratory Tests

by Miklós Kuczmann

Electronics 2024, 13(11), 2225; https://doi.org/10.3390/electronics13112225 - 6 Jun 2024

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2761

Abstract

This review paper introduces the modeling, measurement, identification and control of direct current motors based on the state space modeling and the transfer function representation. These models are identified by real laboratory measurements, and the simulated results are compared with the measurements. Continuous-time [...] Read more.

This review paper introduces the modeling, measurement, identification and control of direct current motors based on the state space modeling and the transfer function representation. These models are identified by real laboratory measurements, and the simulated results are compared with the measurements. Continuous-time and discrete-time PID (Proportional-Integral-Derivative) controllers, discrete-time state feedback and linear quadratic controllers are designed mathematically. The designed controllers are realized by the microcontroller Arduino UNO, and the behavior of the controllers is compared and analyzed. The noisy current signal has been measured by a discrete-time observer, steady-state Kalman filtering is also studied. The practical results of the implemented controllers support the theoretical results very well. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Power Converter Design, Control and Applications)

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36 pages, 3616 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperReview

Optimizing Performance of Hybrid Electrochemical Energy Storage Systems through Effective Control: A Comprehensive Review

by Alejandro Clemente, Paula Arias, Levon Gevorkov, Lluís Trilla, Sergi Obrador Rey, Xavier Sanchez Roger, José Luis Domínguez-García and Àlber Filbà Martínez

Electronics 2024, 13(7), 1258; https://doi.org/10.3390/electronics13071258 - 28 Mar 2024

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1726

Abstract

The implementation of energy storage system (ESS) technology with an appropriate control system can enhance the resilience and economic performance of power systems. However, none of the storage options available today can perform at their best in every situation. As a matter of [...] Read more.

The implementation of energy storage system (ESS) technology with an appropriate control system can enhance the resilience and economic performance of power systems. However, none of the storage options available today can perform at their best in every situation. As a matter of fact, an isolated storage solution’s energy and power density, lifespan, cost, and response time are its primary performance constraints. Batteries are the essential energy storage component used in electric mobility, industries, and household applications nowadays. In general, the battery energy storage systems (BESS) currently available on the market are based on a homogeneous type of electrochemical battery. However, a hybrid energy storage system (HESS) based on a mixture of various types of electrochemical batteries can potentially provide a better option for high-performance electric cars, heavy-duty electric vehicles, industries, and residential purposes. A hybrid energy storage system combines two or more electrochemical energy storage systems to provide a more reliable and efficient energy storage solution. At the same time, the integration of multiple energy storage systems in an HESS requires advanced control strategies to ensure optimal performance and longevity of the system. This review paper aims to provide a comprehensive overview of the control systems used in HESSs for a wide range of applications. An overview of the various control strategies used in HESSs is offered, including traditional control methods such as proportional–integral–derivative (PID) control, and advanced control methods such as model predictive control (MPC), droop control (DC), sliding mode control (SMC), rule-based control (RBC), fuzzy logic control (FLC), and artificial neural network (ANN) control are discussed. The paper also highlights the recent developments in HESS control systems, including the use of machine learning techniques such as deep reinforcement learning (DRL) and genetic algorithms (GA). The paper provides not only a description and classification of various control approaches but also a comparison between control strategies from the evaluation of performance point of view. The review concludes by summarizing the key findings and future research directions for HESS control systems, which is directly linked to the research on machine learning and the mix of different control type strategies. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Power Converter Design, Control and Applications)

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