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Positioning Algorithm, System and Application Using Radio Frequency (RF)

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A special issue of Energies (ISSN 1996-1073). This special issue belongs to the section "G1: Smart Cities and Urban Management".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (20 May 2021) | Viewed by 26118

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Special Issue Editors

Prof. Dr. Jae-Young Pyun

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Guest Editor

Department of Information and Communication Engineering, Chosun University, Gwangju 61452, Republic of Korea
Interests: IoT protocols; indoor positioning system (IPS); real-time location system (RTLS); UWB (ultra-wideband)-based IoT applications; IR-UWB; UAV system for public safety
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Dr. Santosh Subedi

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor

Department of Information and Communication Engineering, Chosun University, 375 Susuk-dong, Dong-gu, Gwangju 501-759, Korea
Interests: indoor positioning system (IPS); wireless sensor networks (WSN); wireless communication system; IoT-based services; machine learning/deep learning

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Due to the proliferating social and commercial interest on location-based services (LBS), research and developments for indoor and outdoor positioning systems have been expanded. Specifically, the radio frequency (RF) based positioning technologies such as Global navigation satellite systems (GNSS), 3G/4G/5G mobile communication, WiFi, Bluetooth beacon, UWB have been actively used for LBS services. The demand for the positioning service has grown through LBS applications such as indoor path finding and navigation, marketing, entertainment, security, and location-based information retrieval.

The goal of this Special Issue is to contribute to the development of algorithms, systems, and applications based on RF based indoor and outdoor positioning/ranging technologies.

Prof. Dr. Jae-Young Pyun
Dr. Santosh Subedi
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

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Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Energies is an international peer-reviewed open access semimonthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2600 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

Indoor/outdoor positioning algorithms, systems, and applications
Indoor/outdoor navigation and tracking
Protocols and architectures for positioning
Ranging techniques using RF
Realtime location system (RTLS)
IoT/4G/5G communications for positioning
Satellite based positioning
Hybrid positing system using RF and non-RF based positionings
Global Navigation satellite system (GNSS)
Complementary techniques for position estimation, i.e., PDR/RF ranging/positioning and inertial navigation system(INS)/GPS positioning
WiFi/Beacon/UWB based positioning
UWB ranging detection and applications
Location-based-service (LBS)
Simultaneous Localization and Mapping (SLAM)
Signal processing and communication system for localization
Cell ID, TOA/TDOA/AOA, RSS based positioning
Angle of arrival estimation for localization service
UAV and Robotics for localization and navigation system

Published Papers (10 papers)

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Research

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18 pages, 103231 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Concept of an Innovative Autonomous Unmanned System for Bathymetric Monitoring of Shallow Waterbodies (INNOBAT System)

by Mariusz Specht, Andrzej Stateczny, Cezary Specht, Szymon Widźgowski, Oktawia Lewicka and Marta Wiśniewska

Energies 2021, 14(17), 5370; https://doi.org/10.3390/en14175370 - 29 Aug 2021

Cited by 39 | Viewed by 2587

Abstract

Bathymetry is a subset of hydrography, aimed at measuring the depth of waterbodies and waterways. Measurements are taken inter alia to detect natural obstacles or other navigational obstacles that endanger the safety of navigation, to examine the navigability conditions, anchorages, waterways and other commercial waterbodies, and to determine the parameters of the safe depth of waterbodies in the vicinity of ports, etc. Therefore, it is necessary to produce precise and reliable seabed maps, so that any hazards that may occur, particularly in shallow waterbodies, can be prevented, including the high dynamics of hydromorphological changes. This publication is aimed at developing a concept of an innovative autonomous unmanned system for bathymetric monitoring of shallow waterbodies. A bathymetric and topographic system will use autonomous unmanned aerial and surface vehicles to study the seabed relief in the littoral zone (even at depths of less than 1 m), in line with the requirements set out for the most stringent International Hydrographic Organization (IHO) order—exclusive. Unlike other existing solutions, the INNOBAT system will enable the coverage of the entire surveyed area with measurements, which will allow a comprehensive assessment of the hydrographic and navigation situation in the waterbody to be conducted. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Positioning Algorithm, System and Application Using Radio Frequency (RF))

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24 pages, 7197 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Methodology for the Correction of the Spatial Orientation Angles of the Unmanned Aerial Vehicle Using Real Time GNSS, a Shoreline Image and an Electronic Navigational Chart

by Krzysztof Naus, Piotr Szymak, Paweł Piskur, Maciej Niedziela and Aleksander Nowak

Energies 2021, 14(10), 2810; https://doi.org/10.3390/en14102810 - 13 May 2021

Cited by 13 | Viewed by 2265

Abstract

Undoubtedly, Low-Altitude Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs) are becoming more common in marine applications. Equipped with a Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) Real-Time Kinematic (RTK) receiver for highly accurate positioning, they perform camera and Light Detection and Ranging (LiDAR) measurements. Unfortunately, these measurements may still be subject to large errors-mainly due to the inaccuracy of measurement of the optical axis of the camera or LiDAR sensor. Usually, UAVs use a small and light Inertial Navigation System (INS) with an angle measurement error of up to

{0.5}^{\circ}

(RMSE). The methodology for spatial orientation angle correction presented in the article allows the reduction of this error even to the level of

{0.01}^{\circ}

(RMSE). It can be successfully used in coastal and port waters. To determine the corrections, only the Electronic Navigational Chart (ENC) and an image of the coastline are needed. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Positioning Algorithm, System and Application Using Radio Frequency (RF))

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13 pages, 4215 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Implementation of QR Code Recognition Technology Using Smartphone Camera for Indoor Positioning

by Ji-In Kim, Hui-Seon Gang, Jae-Young Pyun and Goo-Rak Kwon

Energies 2021, 14(10), 2759; https://doi.org/10.3390/en14102759 - 11 May 2021

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 3162

Abstract

Numerous studies on positioning technology are ongoing for recognizing the positions of objects accurately. Vision-, sensor-, and signal-based technologies are combined for recognizing the positions of objects outdoors and indoors. While positioning technologies involving wireless communication based on sensors and signals are commonly used in outdoor environments, the performance becomes degraded in indoor environments. Therefore, a vision-based indoor positioning method using a QR code is proposed in this study. A user’s position is measured by determining the current position of a smartphone device accurately based on the QR code recognized with a smartphone camera. The direction, distance, and position are acquired using the relationship between the three-dimensional spatial coordinate information of the camera and the center point coordinates of a two-dimensional planar QR code obtained through camera calibration. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Positioning Algorithm, System and Application Using Radio Frequency (RF))

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15 pages, 5202 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Determining the Seasonal Variability of the Territorial Sea Baseline in Poland (2018–2020) Using Integrated USV/GNSS/SBES Measurements

by Mariusz Specht, Cezary Specht, Andrzej Stateczny, Łukasz Marchel, Oktawia Lewicka, Monika Paliszewska-Mojsiuk and Marta Wiśniewska

Energies 2021, 14(9), 2693; https://doi.org/10.3390/en14092693 - 7 May 2021

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2327

Abstract

The Territorial Sea Baseline (TSB) allows coastal states to define the maritime boundaries, such as: contiguous zone, continental shelf, exclusive economic zone and territorial sea. Their delimitations determine what rights (jurisdiction and sovereignty) a given coastal state is entitled to. For many years, the problem of delimiting baseline was considered in two aspects: legal (lack of clear-cut regulations and different interpretations) and measurement (lack of research tools for precise and reliable depth measurement in ultra-shallow waters). This paper aimed to define the seasonal variability of the TSB in 2018–2020. The survey was conducted in three representative waterbodies of the Republic of Poland: open sea, river mouth and exit from a large port, differing between each other in seabed shape. Baseline measurements were carried out with Unmanned Surface Vehicles (USV), equipped with Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) geodetic receivers and miniature Single Beam Echo Sounders (SBES). The survey has shown that the smallest seasonal variability of TSB (1.86–3.00 m) was confirmed for the waterbody located near the Vistula Śmiała River mouth, which features steep shores. On the other hand, the greatest variability in the baseline (5.73–8.37 m) as observed in the waterbody adjacent to the public beach in Gdynia. Factors conditioning considerable changes in TSB determination were: periodically performed land reclamation works in the area and the fact that the depth of the waterbody increases slowly when moving away from the coastline. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Positioning Algorithm, System and Application Using Radio Frequency (RF))

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22 pages, 4169 KiB

Open AccessArticle

New Methodology for Computing the Aircraft’s Position Based on the PPP Method in GPS and GLONASS Systems

by Kamil Krasuski and Damian Wierzbicki

Energies 2021, 14(9), 2525; https://doi.org/10.3390/en14092525 - 28 Apr 2021

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1457

Abstract

In the field of air navigation, there is a constant pursuit for new navigation solutions for precise GNSS (Global Navigation Satellite System) positioning of aircraft. This study aims to present the results of research on the development of a new method for improving the performance of PPP (Precise Point Positioning) positioning in the GPS (Global Positioning System) and GLONASS (Globalnaja Nawigacionnaja Sputnikovaya Sistema) systems for air navigation. The research method is based on a linear combination of individual position solutions from the GPS and GLONASS systems. The paper shows a computational scheme based on the linear combination for geocentric XYZ coordinates of an aircraft. The algorithm of the new research method uses the weighted mean method to determine the resultant aircraft position. The research method was tested on GPS and GLONASS kinematic data from an airborne experiment carried out with a Seneca Piper PA34-200T aircraft at the Mielec airport. A dual-frequency dual-system GPS/GLONASS receiver was placed on-board the plane, which made it possible to record GNSS observations, which were then used to calculate the aircraft’s position in CSRS-PPP software. The calculated XYZ position coordinates from the CSRS-PPP software were then used in the weighted mean model’s developed optimization algorithm. The measurement weights are a function of the number of GPS and GLONASS satellites and the inverse of the mean error square. The obtained coordinates of aircraft from the research model were verified with the RTK-OTF solution. As a result of the research, the presented solution’s accuracy is better by 11–87% for the model with a weighting scheme as a function of the inverse of the mean error square. Moreover, using the XYZ position from the RTKLIB program, the research method’s accuracy increases from 45% to 82% for the model with a weighting scheme as a function of the inverse of the square of mean error. The developed method demonstrates high efficiency for improving the performance of GPS and GLONASS solutions for the PPP measurement technology in air navigation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Positioning Algorithm, System and Application Using Radio Frequency (RF))

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22 pages, 6383 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Application the SBAS/EGNOS Corrections in UAV Positioning

by Kamil Krasuski and Damian Wierzbicki

Energies 2021, 14(3), 739; https://doi.org/10.3390/en14030739 - 31 Jan 2021

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 2437

Abstract

The paper presents a new concept of determining the resultant position of a UAV (Unmanned Aerial Vehicle) based on individual SBAS (Satellite-Based Augmentation System) determinations from all available EGNOS (European Geostationary Navigation Overlay Service) satellites for the SPP (Single Point Positioning) code method. To achieve this, the authors propose a weighted mean model to integrate EGNOS data. The weighted model was based on the inverse of the square of the mean position error along the component axes of the BLh ellipsoidal frame. The calculations included navigation data from the EGNOS S123, S126, S136 satellites. In turn, the resultant UAV position model was determined using the Scilab v.6.0.0 software. Based on the proposed computational strategy, the mean values of the UAV BLh coordinates’ standard deviation were better than 0.2 m (e.g., 0.0000018° = 0.01″ in angular measurement). Additionally, the numerical solution used made it possible to increase the UAV’s position accuracy by about 29% for Latitude, 46% for Longitude and 72% for ellipsoidal height compared to the standard SPP positioning in the GPS receiver. It is also worth noting that the standard deviation of the UAV position calculated from the weighted mean model improved by about 21 ÷ 50% compared to the arithmetic mean model’s solution. It can be concluded that the proposed research method allows for a significant improvement in the accuracy of UAV positioning with the use of EGNOS augmentation systems. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Positioning Algorithm, System and Application Using Radio Frequency (RF))

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17 pages, 14330 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Testing the Accuracy of the Modified ICP Algorithm with Multimodal Weighting Factors

by Łukasz Marchel, Cezary Specht and Mariusz Specht

Energies 2020, 13(22), 5939; https://doi.org/10.3390/en13225939 - 13 Nov 2020

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 2124

Abstract

SLAM technology is increasingly used to self-locate mobile robots in an unknown environment. One of the methods used in this technology is called scan matching. Increasing evidence is placed on the accuracy and speed of the methods used in terms of navigating mobile robots. The aim of this article is to present a modification to the standard method of Iterative Closest Point (ICP) environment scan matching using the authors’ three original weighting factors based on the error modeling. The presented modification was supported by a simulation study whose aim was not exclusively to check the effect of the factors but also to examine the effect of the number of points in scans on the correct and accurate development of the rotation matrix and the translation vector. The study demonstrated both an increase in the accuracy of ICP results following the implementation of the proposed modification and a noticeable increase in accuracy with an increase in the mapping device’s angular resolution. The proposed method has a positive impact on reducing number of iteration and computing time. The research results have shown to be promising and will be extended to 3D space in the future. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Positioning Algorithm, System and Application Using Radio Frequency (RF))

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19 pages, 66175 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Assessment of the Steering Precision of a Hydrographic USV along Sounding Profiles Using a High-Precision GNSS RTK Receiver Supported Autopilot

by Łukasz Marchel, Cezary Specht and Mariusz Specht

Energies 2020, 13(21), 5637; https://doi.org/10.3390/en13215637 - 28 Oct 2020

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 2473

Abstract

Unmanned Surface Vehicles (USV) are increasingly used to perform numerous tasks connected with measurements in inland waters and seas. One of such target applications is hydrography, where traditional (manned) bathymetric measurements are increasingly often realized by unmanned surface vehicles. This pertains especially to restricted or hardly navigable waters, in which execution of hydrographic surveys with the use of USVs requires precise maneuvering. Bathymetric measurements should be realized in a way that makes it possible to determine the waterbody’s depth as precisely as possible, and this requires high-precision in navigating along planned sounding profiles. This paper presents research that aimed to determine the accuracy of unmanned surface vehicle steering in autonomous mode (with a Proportional-Integral-Derivative (PID) controller) along planned hydrographic profiles. During the measurements, a high-precision Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) Real Time Kinematic (RTK) positioning system based on a GNSS reference station network (positioning accuracy: 1–2 cm, p = 0.95) and a magnetic compass with the stability of course maintenance of 1°–3° Root Mean Square (RMS) were used. For the purpose of evaluating the accuracy of the vessel’s path following along sounding profiles, the cross track error (XTE) measure, i.e., the distance between an USV’s position and the hydrographic profile, calculated transversely to the course, was proposed. The tests were compared with earlier measurements taken by other unmanned surface vehicles, which followed the exact same profiles with the use of much simpler and low-cost multi-GNSS receiver (positioning accuracy: 2–2.5 m or better, p = 0.50), supported with a Fluxgate magnetic compass with a high course measurement accuracy of 0.3° (p = 0.50 at 30 m/s). The research has shown that despite the considerable difference in the positioning accuracy of both devices and incomparably different costs of both solutions, the authors proved that the use of the GNSS RTK positioning system, as opposed to a multi-GNSS system supported with a Fluxgate magnetic compass, influences the precision of USV following sounding profiles to an insignificant extent. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Positioning Algorithm, System and Application Using Radio Frequency (RF))

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26 pages, 5336 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Road Tests of the Positioning Accuracy of INS/GNSS Systems Based on MEMS Technology for Navigating Railway Vehicles

by Mariusz Specht, Cezary Specht, Paweł Dąbrowski, Krzysztof Czaplewski, Leszek Smolarek and Oktawia Lewicka

Energies 2020, 13(17), 4463; https://doi.org/10.3390/en13174463 - 29 Aug 2020

Cited by 26 | Viewed by 3293

Abstract

Thanks to the support of Inertial Navigation Systems (INS), Global Navigation Satellite Systems (GNSS) provide a navigation positioning solution that, in the absence of satellite signals (in tunnels, forest and urban areas), allows the continuous positioning of a moving object (air, land and sea). Passenger and freight trains must, for safety reasons, comply with several formal navigation requirements, particularly those that concern the minimum acceptable accuracy for determining their position. Depending on the type of task performed by the train (positioning a vehicle on a route, stopping at a turnout, stopping at a platform, monitoring the movement of rolling stock, etc.), the train must have positioning systems that can determine its position with sufficient accuracy (1–10 m, p = 0.95) to perform the tasks in question. A wide range of INS/GNSS equipment is currently available, ranging from very costly to simple solutions based on Micro-Electro-Mechanical Systems (MEMS), which, in addition to an inertial unit, use one or two GNSS receivers. The paper presents an assessment of the accuracy of both types of solutions by testing them simultaneously in dynamic measurements. The research, due to the costs and logistics complexity, was made using a passenger car. The surveys were carried out in a complex way, because the measurement route was travelled three times at four different speeds: 40 km/h, 80 km/h, 100 km/h and 120 km/h on seven representative test sections with diverse land development. In order to determine the positioning accuracy of INS devices, two precise GNSS geodetic receivers (2 cm accuracy, p = 0.95) were used as a reference positioning system. The measurements demonstrated that only INS/GNSS systems based on two receivers can meet the requirements of most railway applications related to rail navigation, and since a solution with a single GNSS receiver has a much lower positioning accuracy, it is not suitable for many railway applications. It is noted that considerable differences between the standards defining the navigation requirements for railway applications. For example, INS/GNSS systems based on two receivers meet the vast majority of the expectations specified in the Report on Rail User Needs and Requirements. However, according to the Federal Radionavigation Plan (FRP), it cannot be used in any railway application. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Positioning Algorithm, System and Application Using Radio Frequency (RF))

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Other

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19 pages, 15339 KiB

Open AccessTechnical Note

Testing the Positioning Accuracy of GNSS Solutions during the Tramway Track Mobile Satellite Measurements in Diverse Urban Signal Reception Conditions

by Mariusz Specht, Cezary Specht, Andrzej Wilk, Władysław Koc, Leszek Smolarek, Krzysztof Czaplewski, Krzysztof Karwowski, Paweł S. Dąbrowski, Jacek Skibicki, Piotr Chrostowski, Jacek Szmagliński, Sławomir Grulkowski and Sławomir Judek

Energies 2020, 13(14), 3646; https://doi.org/10.3390/en13143646 - 15 Jul 2020

Cited by 13 | Viewed by 2677

Abstract

Mobile Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) measurements carried out on the railway consist of using satellite navigation systems to determine the track geometry of a moving railway vehicle on a given route. Their purposes include diagnostics, stocktaking, and design work in railways. The greatest advantage of this method is the ability to perform measurements in a unified and coherent spatial reference system, which effectively enables the combining of design and construction works, as well as their implementation by engineering teams of diverse specialties. In the article, we attempted to assess the impact of using three types of work mode for a GNSS geodetic network [Global Positioning System (GPS), GPS/Global Navigation Satellite System (GLONASS) and GPS/GLONASS/Galileo] on positioning availability at three accuracy levels: 1 cm, 3 cm and 10 cm. This paper presents a mathematical model that enables the calculation of positioning availability at these levels. This model was also applied to the results of the measurement campaign performed by five GNSS geodetic receivers, made by a leading company in the field. Measurements with simultaneous position recording and accuracy assessment were taken separately on the same route for three types of receiver settings: GPS, GPS/GLONASS and GPS/GLONASS/Galileo in an urban area typical of a medium-sized city. The study has shown that applying a two-system solution (GPS/GLONASS) considerably increases the availability of high-precision coordinates compared to a single-system solution (GPS), whereas the measurements with three systems (GPS/GLONASS/Galileo) negligibly increase the availability compared to a two-system solution (GPS/GLONASS). Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Positioning Algorithm, System and Application Using Radio Frequency (RF))

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