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5 pages, 165 KiB

Open AccessEditorial

Recent Advances in Flow and Transport Properties of Unconventional Reservoirs

by Jianchao Cai, Zhien Zhang, Qinjun Kang and Harpreet Singh

Energies 2019, 12(10), 1865; https://doi.org/10.3390/en12101865 - 16 May 2019

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 2723

Abstract

As a major supplement to conventional fossil fuels, unconventional oil and gas resources have received significant attention across the globe. However, significant challenges need to be overcome in order to economically develop these resources, and new technologies based on a fundamental understanding of [...] Read more.

As a major supplement to conventional fossil fuels, unconventional oil and gas resources have received significant attention across the globe. However, significant challenges need to be overcome in order to economically develop these resources, and new technologies based on a fundamental understanding of flow and transport processes in unconventional reservoirs are the key. This special issue collects a series of recent studies focused on the application of novel technologies and theories in unconventional reservoirs, covering the fields of petrophysical characterization, hydraulic fracturing, fluid transport physics, enhanced oil recovery, and geothermal energy. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Flow and Transport Properties of Unconventional Reservoirs 2018)

Research

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20 pages, 9083 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Well-Placement Optimization in an Enhanced Geothermal System Based on the Fracture Continuum Method and 0-1 Programming

by Liming Zhang, Zekun Deng, Kai Zhang, Tao Long, Joshua Kwesi Desbordes, Hai Sun and Yongfei Yang

Energies 2019, 12(4), 709; https://doi.org/10.3390/en12040709 - 21 Feb 2019

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 3696

Abstract

The well-placement of an enhanced geothermal system (EGS) is significant to its performance and economic viability because of the fractures in the thermal reservoir and the expensive cost of well-drilling. In this work, a numerical simulation and genetic algorithm are combined to search [...] Read more.

The well-placement of an enhanced geothermal system (EGS) is significant to its performance and economic viability because of the fractures in the thermal reservoir and the expensive cost of well-drilling. In this work, a numerical simulation and genetic algorithm are combined to search for the optimization of the well-placement for an EGS, considering the uneven distribution of fractures. The fracture continuum method is used to simplify the seepage in the fractured reservoir to reduce the computational expense of a numerical simulation. In order to reduce the potential well-placements, the well-placement optimization problem is regarded as a 0-1 programming problem. A 2-D assumptive thermal reservoir model is used to verify the validity of the optimization method. The results indicate that the well-placement optimization proposed in this paper can improve the performance of an EGS. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Flow and Transport Properties of Unconventional Reservoirs 2018)

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18 pages, 4331 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Fractal Characterization of Nanopore Structure in Shale, Tight Sandstone and Mudstone from the Ordos Basin of China Using Nitrogen Adsorption

by Xiaohong Li, Zhiyong Gao, Siyi Fang, Chao Ren, Kun Yang and Fuyong Wang

Energies 2019, 12(4), 583; https://doi.org/10.3390/en12040583 - 13 Feb 2019

Cited by 37 | Viewed by 6312

Abstract

The characteristics of the nanopore structure in shale, tight sandstone and mudstone from the Ordos Basin of China were investigated by X-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis, porosity and permeability tests and low-pressure nitrogen adsorption experiments. Fractal dimensions D₁ and D₂ were determined [...] Read more.

The characteristics of the nanopore structure in shale, tight sandstone and mudstone from the Ordos Basin of China were investigated by X-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis, porosity and permeability tests and low-pressure nitrogen adsorption experiments. Fractal dimensions D₁ and D₂ were determined from the low relative pressure range (0 < P/P₀ < 0.4) and the high relative pressure range (0.4 < P/P₀ < 1) of nitrogen adsorption data, respectively, using the Frenkel–Halsey–Hill (FHH) model. Relationships between pore structure parameters, mineral compositions and fractal dimensions were investigated. According to the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) isotherm classification standard, the morphologies of the nitrogen adsorption curves of these 14 samples belong to the H2 and H3 types. Relationships among average pore diameter, Brunner-Emmet-Teller (BET) specific surface area, pore volume, porosity and permeability have been discussed. The heterogeneities of shale nanopore structures were verified, and nanopore size mainly concentrates under 30 nm. The average fractal dimension D₁ of all the samples is 2.1187, varying from 1.1755 to 2.6122, and the average fractal dimension D₂ is 2.4645, with the range from 2.2144 to 2.7362. Compared with D₁, D₂ has stronger relationships with pore structure parameters, and can be used for analyzing pore structure characteristics. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Flow and Transport Properties of Unconventional Reservoirs 2018)

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17 pages, 3544 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Impact of Local Effects on the Evolution of Unconventional Rock Permeability

by Xinxing Ma, Xianwen Li, Shouwen Zhang, Yanming Zhang, Xiangie Hao and Jishan Liu

Energies 2019, 12(3), 478; https://doi.org/10.3390/en12030478 - 1 Feb 2019

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 3032

Abstract

When gas is extracted from unconventional rock, local equilibrium conditions between matrixes and fractures are destroyed and significant local effects are introduced. Although the interactions between the matrix and fracture have a strong influence on the permeability evolution, they are not understood well. [...] Read more.

When gas is extracted from unconventional rock, local equilibrium conditions between matrixes and fractures are destroyed and significant local effects are introduced. Although the interactions between the matrix and fracture have a strong influence on the permeability evolution, they are not understood well. This may be the reason why permeability models in commercial codes do not include the matrix-fracture interactions. In this study, we introduced the local force to define the interactions between the matrix and the fracture and derived a set of partial differential equations to define the full coupling of rock deformation and gas flow both in the matrix and in the fracture systems. The full set of cross-coupling formulations were solved to generate permeability evolution profiles during unconventional gas extraction. The results of this study demonstrate that the contrast between the matrix and fracture properties controls the processes and their evolutions. The primary reason is the gas diffusion from fractures to matrixes. The diffusion changes the force balance, mass exchange and deformation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Flow and Transport Properties of Unconventional Reservoirs 2018)

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18 pages, 2236 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Hydrogeochemical and Isotopic Constraints on the Pattern of a Deep Circulation Groundwater Flow System

by Xiting Long, Keneng Zhang, Ruiqiang Yuan, Liang Zhang and Zhenling Liu

Energies 2019, 12(3), 404; https://doi.org/10.3390/en12030404 - 28 Jan 2019

Cited by 17 | Viewed by 3221

Abstract

Characterization of a deep circulation groundwater flow system is a big challenge, because the flow field and aqueous chemistry of deep circulation groundwater is significantly influenced by the geothermal reservoir. In this field study, we employed a geochemical approach to recognize a deep [...] Read more.

Characterization of a deep circulation groundwater flow system is a big challenge, because the flow field and aqueous chemistry of deep circulation groundwater is significantly influenced by the geothermal reservoir. In this field study, we employed a geochemical approach to recognize a deep circulation groundwater pattern by combined the geochemistry analysis with isotopic measurements. The water samples were collected from the outlet of the Reshui River Basin which has a hot spring with a temperature of 88 °C. Experimental results reveal a fault-controlled deep circulation geothermal groundwater flow system. The weathering crust of the granitic mountains on the south of the basin collects precipitation infiltration, which is the recharge area of the deep circulation groundwater system. Water infiltrates from the land surface to a depth of about 3.8–4.3 km where the groundwater is heated up to around 170 °C in the geothermal reservoir. A regional active normal fault acts as a pathway of groundwater. The geothermal groundwater is then obstructed by a thrust fault and recharged by the hot spring, which is forced by the water pressure of convection derived from the 800 m altitude difference between the recharge and the discharge areas. Some part of groundwater flow within a geothermal reservoir is mixed with cold shallow groundwater. The isotopic fraction is positively correlated with the seasonal water table depth of shallow groundwater. Basic mineral dissolutions at thermoneutral conditions, hydrolysis with the aid of carbonic acid produced by the reaction of carbon dioxide with the water, and hydrothermal alteration in the geothermal reservoir add some extra chemical components into the geothermal water. The alkaline deep circulation groundwater is chemically featured by high contents of sodium, sulfate, chloride, fluorine, silicate, and some trace elements, such as lithium, strontium, cesium, and rubidium. Our results suggest that groundwater deep circulation convection exists in mountain regions where water-conducting fault and water-blocking fault combined properly. A significant elevation difference of topography is the other key. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Flow and Transport Properties of Unconventional Reservoirs 2018)

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17 pages, 9308 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Petrophysical Characterization and Fractal Analysis of Carbonate Reservoirs of the Eastern Margin of the Pre-Caspian Basin

by Feng Sha, Lizhi Xiao, Zhiqiang Mao and Chen Jia

Energies 2019, 12(1), 78; https://doi.org/10.3390/en12010078 - 28 Dec 2018

Cited by 18 | Viewed by 4594

Abstract

Petrophysical properties including pore structure and permeability are essential for successful evaluation and development of reservoirs. In this paper, we use casting thin section and mercury intrusion capillary pressure (MICP) data to investigate the pore structure characterization, permeability estimation, and fractal characteristics of [...] Read more.

Petrophysical properties including pore structure and permeability are essential for successful evaluation and development of reservoirs. In this paper, we use casting thin section and mercury intrusion capillary pressure (MICP) data to investigate the pore structure characterization, permeability estimation, and fractal characteristics of Carboniferous carbonate reservoirs in the middle blocks of the eastern margin of the Pre-Caspian Basin. Rock casting thin sections show that intergranular and intragranular dissolution pores are the main storage spaces. The pore throats greater than 1 μm and lower than 0.1 μm account for 47.98% and 22.85% respectively. A permeability prediction model was proposed by incorporating the porosity, Swanson, and R₃₅ parameters. The prediction result agrees well with the core sample data. Fractal dimensions based on MICP curves range from 2.29 to 2.77 with an average of 2.61. The maximum mercury intrusion saturation is weakly correlated with the fractal dimension, while the pore structure parameters such as displacement pressure and median radii have no correlation with fractal dimension, indicating that single fractal dimension could not capture the pore structure characteristics. Finally, combined with the pore types, MICP shape, and petrophysical parameters, the studied reservoirs were classified into four types. The productivity shows a good correlation with the reservoir types. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Flow and Transport Properties of Unconventional Reservoirs 2018)

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19 pages, 4017 KiB

Open AccessArticle

An Analytical Flow Model for Heterogeneous Multi-Fractured Systems in Shale Gas Reservoirs

by Honghua Tao, Liehui Zhang, Qiguo Liu, Qi Deng, Man Luo and Yulong Zhao

Energies 2018, 11(12), 3422; https://doi.org/10.3390/en11123422 - 6 Dec 2018

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 3337

Abstract

The use of multiple hydraulically fractured horizontal wells has been proven to be an efficient and effective way to enable shale gas production. Meanwhile, analytical models represent a rapid evaluation method that has been developed to investigate the pressure-transient behaviors in shale gas [...] Read more.

The use of multiple hydraulically fractured horizontal wells has been proven to be an efficient and effective way to enable shale gas production. Meanwhile, analytical models represent a rapid evaluation method that has been developed to investigate the pressure-transient behaviors in shale gas reservoirs. Furthermore, fractal-anomalous diffusion, which describes a sub-diffusion process by a non-linear relationship with time and cannot be represented by Darcy’s law, has been noticed in heterogeneous porous media. In order to describe the pressure-transient behaviors in shale gas reservoirs more accurately, an improved analytical model based on the fractal-anomalous diffusion is established. Various diffusions in the shale matrix, pressure-dependent permeability, fractal geometry features, and anomalous diffusion in the stimulated reservoir volume region are considered. Type curves of pressure and pressure derivatives are plotted, and the effects of anomalous diffusion and mass fractal dimension are investigated in a sensitivity analysis. The impact of anomalous diffusion is recognized as two opposite aspects in the early linear flow regime and after that period, when it changes from 1 to 0.75. The smaller mass fractal dimension, which changes from 2 to 1.8, results in more pressure and a drop in the pressure derivative. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Flow and Transport Properties of Unconventional Reservoirs 2018)

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11 pages, 2904 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effect of Clay Mineral Composition on Low-Salinity Water Flooding

by Shan Jiang, Pingping Liang and Yujiao Han

Energies 2018, 11(12), 3317; https://doi.org/10.3390/en11123317 - 28 Nov 2018

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 3353

Abstract

Low-salinity water (LSW) flooding technology has obvious operational and economic advantages, so it is applied to practice in many oilfields. However, there are differences in the oil recovery efficiencies in different oilfields, the reasons for which need to be further studied and discussed. [...] Read more.

Low-salinity water (LSW) flooding technology has obvious operational and economic advantages, so it is applied to practice in many oilfields. However, there are differences in the oil recovery efficiencies in different oilfields, the reasons for which need to be further studied and discussed. This paper studies the effect of different clay mineral compositions on low-salinity water flooding. For this purpose, three groups of core displacement experiments were designed with cores containing different clay mineral compositions for comparison. In the process of formation water and low-salinity water driving, the oil recovery and produced-water properties were measured. By comparing the two types of water flooding, it was found that the cores with the highest montmorillonite content had the best effect (5.7%) on low-salinity water flooding and the cores with the highest kaolinite content had the least effect (1.9%). This phenomenon is closely related to the difference in ion exchange capacity of the clay minerals. Moreover, after switching to low-salinity water flooding, the interfacial tension and wetting angle of the produced-water increased and the value of pH decreased, which are important mechanisms for enhancing oil recovery by low-salinity water flooding. This study reveals the influence of clay mineral composition on low-salinity water flooding and can provide more guidance for conventional and unconventional oilfield application of low-salinity water flooding technology. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Flow and Transport Properties of Unconventional Reservoirs 2018)

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11 pages, 5548 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Experimental Study of Sulfonate Gemini Surfactants as Thickeners for Clean Fracturing Fluids

by Shanfa Tang, Yahui Zheng, Weipeng Yang, Jiaxin Wang, Yingkai Fan and Jun Lu

Energies 2018, 11(11), 3182; https://doi.org/10.3390/en11113182 - 16 Nov 2018

Cited by 22 | Viewed by 3372

Abstract

Hydraulic fracturing is one of the important methods to improve oil and gas production. The performance of the fracturing fluid directly affects the success of hydraulic fracturing. The traditional cross-linked polymer fracturing fluid can cause secondary damage to oil and gas reservoirs due [...] Read more.

Hydraulic fracturing is one of the important methods to improve oil and gas production. The performance of the fracturing fluid directly affects the success of hydraulic fracturing. The traditional cross-linked polymer fracturing fluid can cause secondary damage to oil and gas reservoirs due to the poor flow-back of the fracturing fluid, and existing conventional cleaning fracturing fluids have poor performance in high temperature. Therefore, this paper has carried out research on novel sulfonate Gemini surfactant cleaning fracturing fluids. The rheological properties of a series of sulfonate Gemini surfactant (DSm-s-m) solutions at different temperatures and constant shear rate (170 s⁻¹) were tested for optimizing the temperature-resistance and thickening properties of anionic Gemini surfactants in clean fracturing fluid. At the same time, the microstructures of solutions were investigated by scanning electron microscope (SEM). The experimental results showed that the viscosity of the sulfonate Gemini surfactant solution varied with the spacer group and the hydrophobic chain at 65 °C and 170 s⁻¹, wherein DS18-3-18 had excellent viscosity-increasing properties. Furthermore, the microstructure of 4 wt.% DS18-3-18 solution demonstrated that DS18-3-18 self-assembled into dense layered micelles, and the micelles intertwined with each other to form the network structure, promoting the increase in solution viscosity. Adding nano-MgO can increase the temperature-resistance of 4 wt.% DS18-3-18 solution, which indicated that the rod-like and close-packed layered micelles were beneficial to the improvement of the temperature-resistance and thickening performances of the DS18-3-18 solution. DS18-3-18 was not only easy to formulate, but also stable in all aspects. Due to its low molecular weight, the damage to the formation was close to zero and the insoluble residue was almost zero because of the absence of breaker, so it could be used as a thickener for clean fracturing fluids in tight reservoirs. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Flow and Transport Properties of Unconventional Reservoirs 2018)

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12 pages, 1805 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Investigating Influential Factors of the Gas Absorption Capacity in Shale Reservoirs Using Integrated Petrophysical, Mineralogical and Geochemical Experiments: A Case Study

by Zhuoying Fan, Jiagen Hou, Xinmin Ge, Peiqiang Zhao and Jianyu Liu

Energies 2018, 11(11), 3078; https://doi.org/10.3390/en11113078 - 8 Nov 2018

Cited by 14 | Viewed by 2805

Abstract

Estimating in situ gas content is very important for the effective exploration of shale gas reservoirs. However, it is difficult to choose the sensitive geological and geophysical parameters during the modeling process, since the controlling factors for the abundance of gas volumes are [...] Read more.

Estimating in situ gas content is very important for the effective exploration of shale gas reservoirs. However, it is difficult to choose the sensitive geological and geophysical parameters during the modeling process, since the controlling factors for the abundance of gas volumes are often unknown and hard to determine. Integrated interdisciplinary experiments (involving petrophysical, mineralogical, geochemical and petrological aspects) were conducted to search for the influential factors of the adsorbed gas volume in marine gas shale reservoirs. The results showed that in shale reservoirs with high maturity and high organic content that the adsorbed gas volume increases, with an increase in the contents of organic matter and quartz, but with a decrease in clay volume. The relationship between the adsorbed gas content and the total porosity is unclear, but a strong relationship between the proportions of different pores is observed. In general, the larger the percentage of micropores, the higher the adsorbed gas content. The result is illuminating, since it may help us to choose suitable parameters for the estimation of shale gas content. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Flow and Transport Properties of Unconventional Reservoirs 2018)

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28 pages, 11514 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Numerical Study on the Diversion Mechanisms of Fracture Networks in Tight Reservoirs with Frictional Natural Fractures

by Daobing Wang, Fang Shi, Bo Yu, Dongliang Sun, Xiuhui Li, Dongxu Han and Yanxin Tan

Energies 2018, 11(11), 3035; https://doi.org/10.3390/en11113035 - 5 Nov 2018

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 3728

Abstract

An opened natural fracture (NF) intercepted by a pressurized hydro-fracture (HF) will be diverted in a new direction at the tips of the original NF and subsequently form a complex fracture network. However, a clear understanding of the diversion behavior of fracture networks [...] Read more.

An opened natural fracture (NF) intercepted by a pressurized hydro-fracture (HF) will be diverted in a new direction at the tips of the original NF and subsequently form a complex fracture network. However, a clear understanding of the diversion behavior of fracture networks in tight reservoirs with frictional NFs is lacking. By means of the extended finite element method(XFEM), this study investigates the diversion mechanisms of an opened NF intersected by an HF in naturally fractured reservoirs. The factors affecting the diversion behavior are intensively analyzed, such as the location of the NF, the horizontal principal stress difference, the intersection angle between HF and NF, and the viscosity of the fracturing fluid. The results show that for a constant length of NF (7 m): (1) the upper length of the diverted fracture (DF) decreases by about 2 m with a 2 m increment of the upper length of NF (

L_{u p p e r}

), while the length of DF increases 9.06 m with the fluid viscosity increased by 99 mPa

\cdot

s; (2) the deflection angle in the upper parts increases by 30.8° with the stress difference increased by 5 MPa, while the deflection angle increases by 61.2° with the intersection angle decreased by 30°. It is easier for the opened NF in lower parts than that in upper parts to be diverted away from its original direction. It finally diverts back to the preferred fracture plane (PFP) direction. The diversion mechanisms of the fracture network are the results of the combined action of all factors. This will provide new insight into the mechanisms of fracture network generation in tight reservoirs with NFs. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Flow and Transport Properties of Unconventional Reservoirs 2018)

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11 pages, 1473 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Non-Linear Flow Model for Porous Media Based on Conformable Derivative Approach

by Gang Lei, Nai Cao, Di Liu and Huijie Wang

Energies 2018, 11(11), 2986; https://doi.org/10.3390/en11112986 - 1 Nov 2018

Cited by 17 | Viewed by 3536

Abstract

Prediction of the non-linear flow in porous media is still a major scientific and engineering challenge, despite major technological advances in both theoretical and computational thermodynamics in the past two decades. Specifically, essential controls on non-linear flow in porous media are not yet [...] Read more.

Prediction of the non-linear flow in porous media is still a major scientific and engineering challenge, despite major technological advances in both theoretical and computational thermodynamics in the past two decades. Specifically, essential controls on non-linear flow in porous media are not yet definitive. The principal aim of this paper is to develop a meaningful and reasonable quantitative model that manifests the most important fundamental controls on low velocity non-linear flow. By coupling a new derivative with fractional order, referred to conformable derivative, Swartzendruber equation and modified Hertzian contact theory as well as fractal geometry theory, a flow velocity model for porous media is proposed to improve the modeling of Non-linear flow in porous media. Predictions using the proposed model agree well with available experimental data. Salient results presented here include (1) the flow velocity decreases as effective stress increases; (2) rock types of “softer” mechanical properties may exhibit lower flow velocity; (3) flow velocity increases with the rougher pore surfaces and rock elastic modulus. In general, the proposed model illustrates mechanisms that affect non-linear flow behavior in porous media. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Flow and Transport Properties of Unconventional Reservoirs 2018)

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24 pages, 6666 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Evolution of Coal Permeability during Gas Injection—From Initial to Ultimate Equilibrium

by Xingxing Liu, Jinchang Sheng, Jishan Liu and Yunjin Hu

Energies 2018, 11(10), 2800; https://doi.org/10.3390/en11102800 - 17 Oct 2018

Cited by 23 | Viewed by 2710

Abstract

The evolution of coal permeability is vitally important for the effective extraction of coal seam gas. A broad variety of permeability models have been developed under the assumption of local equilibrium, i.e., that the fracture pressure is in equilibrium with the matrix pressure. [...] Read more.

The evolution of coal permeability is vitally important for the effective extraction of coal seam gas. A broad variety of permeability models have been developed under the assumption of local equilibrium, i.e., that the fracture pressure is in equilibrium with the matrix pressure. These models have so far failed to explain observations of coal permeability evolution that are available. This study explores the evolution of coal permeability as a non-equilibrium process. A displacement-based model is developed to define the evolution of permeability as a function of fracture aperture. Permeability evolution is tracked for the full spectrum of response from an initial apparent-equilibrium to an ultimate and final equilibrium. This approach is applied to explain why coal permeability changes even under a constant global effective stress, as reported in the literature. Model results clearly demonstrate that coal permeability changes even if conditions of constant effective stress are maintained for the fracture system during the non-equilibrium period, and that the duration of the transient period, from initial apparent-equilibrium to final equilibrium is primarily determined by both the fracture pressure and gas transport in the coal matrix. Based on these findings, it is concluded that the current assumption of local equilibrium in measurements of coal permeability may not be valid. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Flow and Transport Properties of Unconventional Reservoirs 2018)

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14 pages, 2718 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Multiporosity and Multiscale Flow Characteristics of a Stimulated Reservoir Volume (SRV)-Fractured Horizontal Well in a Tight Oil Reservoir

by Long Ren, Wendong Wang, Yuliang Su, Mingqiang Chen, Cheng Jing, Nan Zhang, Yanlong He and Jian Sun

Energies 2018, 11(10), 2724; https://doi.org/10.3390/en11102724 - 11 Oct 2018

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 3251

Abstract

There are multiporosity media in tight oil reservoirs after stimulated reservoir volume (SRV) fracturing. Moreover, multiscale flowing states exist throughout the development process. The fluid flowing characteristic is different from that of conventional reservoirs. In terms of those attributes of tight oil reservoirs, [...] Read more.

There are multiporosity media in tight oil reservoirs after stimulated reservoir volume (SRV) fracturing. Moreover, multiscale flowing states exist throughout the development process. The fluid flowing characteristic is different from that of conventional reservoirs. In terms of those attributes of tight oil reservoirs, considering the flowing feature of the dual-porosity property and the fracture network system based on the discrete-fracture model (DFM), a mathematical flow model of an SRV-fractured horizontal well with multiporosity and multipermeability media was established. The numerical solution was solved by the finite element method and verified by a comparison with the analytical solution and field data. The differences of flow regimes between triple-porosity, dual-permeability (TPDP) and triple-porosity, triple-permeability (TPTP) models were identified. Moreover, the productivity contribution degree of multimedium was analyzed. The results showed that for the multiporosity flowing states, the well bottomhole pressure drop became slower, the linear flow no longer arose, and the pressure wave arrived quickly at the closed reservoir boundary. The contribution ratio of the matrix system, natural fracture system, and network fracture system during SRV-fractured horizontal well production were 7.85%, 43.67%, and 48.48%, respectively in the first year, 14.60%, 49.23%, and 36.17%, respectively in the fifth year, and 20.49%, 46.79%, and 32.72%, respectively in the 10th year. This study provides a theoretical contribution to a better understanding of multiscale flow mechanisms in unconventional reservoirs. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Flow and Transport Properties of Unconventional Reservoirs 2018)

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15 pages, 4217 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Characterization and Consecutive Prediction of Pore Structures in Tight Oil Reservoirs

by Zhaohui Xu, Peiqiang Zhao, Zhenlin Wang, Mehdi Ostadhassan and Zhonghua Pan

Energies 2018, 11(10), 2705; https://doi.org/10.3390/en11102705 - 11 Oct 2018

Cited by 14 | Viewed by 3208

Abstract

The Lucaogou Formation in Jimuaser Sag of Junggar Basin, China is a typical tight oil reservoir with upper and lower sweet spots. However, the pore structure of this formation has not been studied thoroughly due to limited core analysis data. In this paper, [...] Read more.

The Lucaogou Formation in Jimuaser Sag of Junggar Basin, China is a typical tight oil reservoir with upper and lower sweet spots. However, the pore structure of this formation has not been studied thoroughly due to limited core analysis data. In this paper, the pore structures of the Lucaogou Formation were characterized, and a new method applicable to oil-wet rocks was verified and used to consecutively predict pore structures by nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) logs. To do so, a set of experiments including X-ray diffraction (XRD), mercury intrusion capillary pressure (MICP), scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and NMR measurements were conducted. First, SEM images showed that pore types are mainly intragranular dissolution, intergranular dissolution, micro fractures and clay pores. Then, capillary pressure curves were divided into three types (I, II and III). The pores associated with type I and III are mainly dissolution and clay pores, respectively. Next, the new method was verified by “as received” and water-saturated condition T₂ distributions of two samples. Finally, consecutive prediction in fourteen wells demonstrated that the pores of this formation are dominated by nano-scale pores and the pore structure of the lower sweet spot reservoir is more complicated than that in upper sweet spot reservoir. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Flow and Transport Properties of Unconventional Reservoirs 2018)

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17 pages, 4579 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Experimental Investigation of Oil Recovery from Tight Sandstone Oil Reservoirs by Pressure Depletion

by Wenxiang Chen, Zubo Zhang, Qingjie Liu, Xu Chen, Prince Opoku Appau and Fuyong Wang

Energies 2018, 11(10), 2667; https://doi.org/10.3390/en11102667 - 7 Oct 2018

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 3746

Abstract

Oil production by natural energy of the reservoir is usually the first choice for oil reservoir development. Conversely, to effectively develop tight oil reservoir is challenging due to its ultra-low formation permeability. A novel platform for experimental investigation of oil recovery from tight [...] Read more.

Oil production by natural energy of the reservoir is usually the first choice for oil reservoir development. Conversely, to effectively develop tight oil reservoir is challenging due to its ultra-low formation permeability. A novel platform for experimental investigation of oil recovery from tight sandstone oil reservoirs by pressure depletion has been proposed in this paper. A series of experiments were conducted to evaluate the effects of pressure depletion degree, pressure depletion rate, reservoir temperature, overburden pressure, formation pressure coefficient and crude oil properties on oil recovery by reservoir pressure depletion. In addition, the characteristics of pressure propagation during the reservoir depletion process were monitored and studied. The experimental results showed that oil recovery factor positively correlated with pressure depletion degree when reservoir pressure was above the bubble point pressure. Moreover, equal pressure depletion degree led to the same oil recovery factor regardless of different pressure depletion rate. However, it was noticed that faster pressure drop resulted in a higher oil recovery rate. For oil reservoir without dissolved gas (dead oil), oil recovery was 2–3% due to the limited reservoir natural energy. In contrast, depletion from live oil reservoir resulted in an increased recovery rate ranging from 11% to 18% due to the presence of dissolved gas. This is attributed to the fact that when reservoir pressure drops below the bubble point pressure, the dissolved gas expands and pushes the oil out of the rock pore spaces which significantly improves the oil recovery. From the pressure propagation curve, the reason for improved oil recovery is that when the reservoir pressure is lower than the bubble point pressure, the dissolved gas constantly separates and provides additional pressure gradient to displace oil. The present study will help engineers to have a better understanding of the drive mechanisms and influencing factors that affect development of tight oil reservoirs, especially for predicting oil recovery by reservoir pressure depletion. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Flow and Transport Properties of Unconventional Reservoirs 2018)

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14 pages, 3654 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Lattice Boltzmann Simulation of Fluid Flow Characteristics in a Rock Micro-Fracture Based on the Pseudo-Potential Model

by Pengyu Wang, Zhiliang Wang, Linfang Shen and Libin Xin

Energies 2018, 11(10), 2576; https://doi.org/10.3390/en11102576 - 27 Sep 2018

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2700

Abstract

Slip boundary has an important influence on fluid flow, which is non-negligible in rock micro-fractures. In this paper, an improved pseudo-potential multi-relaxation-time (MRT) lattice Boltzmann method (LBM), which can achieve a large density ratio, is introduced to simulate the fluid flow in a [...] Read more.

Slip boundary has an important influence on fluid flow, which is non-negligible in rock micro-fractures. In this paper, an improved pseudo-potential multi-relaxation-time (MRT) lattice Boltzmann method (LBM), which can achieve a large density ratio, is introduced to simulate the fluid flow in a micro-fracture. The model is tested to satisfy thermodynamic consistency and simulate Poiseuille flow in the case of large liquid-gas density ratio. The slip length is used as an index for evaluating the flow characteristics, and the effects of wall wettability, micro-fracture width, driving pressure and liquid-gas density ratio on the slip length are discussed. The results demonstrate that the slip length increases significantly with the increase of the wall contact angle in rock micro-fracture. And the liquid-gas density ratio has an important impact on the slip length, especially for the hydrophobic wall. Moreover, under the laminar flow regime the driving pressure and the micro-fracture width has little effect on the slip length. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Flow and Transport Properties of Unconventional Reservoirs 2018)

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12 pages, 1913 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Investigation on the Application of NMR to Spontaneous Imbibition Recovery of Tight Sandstones: An Experimental Study

by Chaohui Lyu, Qing Wang, Zhengfu Ning, Mingqiang Chen, Mingqi Li, Zhili Chen and Yuxuan Xia

Energies 2018, 11(9), 2359; https://doi.org/10.3390/en11092359 - 6 Sep 2018

Cited by 13 | Viewed by 3103

Abstract

In this paper, the nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) technique is applied to exploring the spontaneous imbibition mechanism in tight sandstones under all face open (AFO) boundary conditions, which will benefit a better understanding of spontaneous imbibition during the development of oil & gas [...] Read more.

In this paper, the nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) technique is applied to exploring the spontaneous imbibition mechanism in tight sandstones under all face open (AFO) boundary conditions, which will benefit a better understanding of spontaneous imbibition during the development of oil & gas in tight formations. The advantages of nuclear magnetic resonance imaging (NMRI) and NMR T₂ are used to define the distribution of remaining oil, evaluate the effect of micro structures on imbibition and predict imbibition recovery. NMR T₂ results show that pore size distributions around two peaks are not only the main oil distributions under saturated condition but also fall within the main imbibition distributions range. Spontaneous imbibition mainly occurs in the first 6 h and then slows down and even ceases. The oil signals in tiny pores stabilize during the early stage of imbibition while the oil signal in large pores keeps fluctuating during the late stage of imbibition. NMRI results demonstrate that spontaneous imbibition is a replacement process starting slowly from the boundaries to the center under AFO and ending with oil-water mixing. Furthermore, the wetting phase can invade the whole core in the first 6 h, which is identical with the main period of imbibition occurring according to NMR T₂ results. Factors influencing the history of oil distribution and saturation differ at different periods, while it is dominated by capillary imbibition at the early stage and allocated by diffusion at later time. Two imbibition recovery curves calculated by NMRI and NMR T₂ are basically consistent, while there still exists some deviations between them as a result of the resolutions of NMRI and NMR T₂. In addition, the heterogeneity of pore size distributions in the two samples aggravates this discrepancy. The work in this paper should prove of great help to better understand the process of the spontaneous imbibition, not only at the macroscopic level but also at the microscopic level, which is significant for oil/gas recovery in tight formations. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Flow and Transport Properties of Unconventional Reservoirs 2018)

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16 pages, 2646 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Transient Productivity Model of Fractured Wells in Shale Reservoirs Based on the Succession Pseudo-Steady State Method

by Fanhui Zeng, Fan Peng, Jianchun Guo, Jianhua Xiang, Qingrong Wang and Jiangang Zhen

Energies 2018, 11(9), 2335; https://doi.org/10.3390/en11092335 - 4 Sep 2018

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 3304

Abstract

After volume fracturing, shale reservoirs can be divided into nonlinear seepage areas controlled by micro- or nanoporous media and Darcy seepage areas controlled by complex fracture networks. In this paper, firstly, on the basis of calculating complex fracture network permeability in a stimulated [...] Read more.

After volume fracturing, shale reservoirs can be divided into nonlinear seepage areas controlled by micro- or nanoporous media and Darcy seepage areas controlled by complex fracture networks. In this paper, firstly, on the basis of calculating complex fracture network permeability in a stimulated zone, the steady-state productivity model is established by comprehensively considering the multi-scale flowing states, shale gas desorption and diffusion after shale fracturing coupling flows in matrix and stimulated region. Then, according to the principle of material balance, a transient productivity calculation model is established with the succession pseudo-steady state (SPSS) method, which considers the unstable propagation of pressure waves, and the factors affecting the transient productivity of fractured wells in shale gas areas are analyzed. The numerical model simulation results verify the reliability of the transient productivity model. The results show that: (1) the productivity prediction model based on the SPSS method provides a theoretical basis for the transient productivity calculation of shale fractured horizontal well, and it has the characteristics of simple solution process, fast computation speed and good agreement with numerical simulation results; (2) the pressure wave propagates from the bottom of the well to the outer boundary of the volume fracturing zone, and then propagates from the outer boundary of the fracturing zone to the reservoir boundary; (3) with the increase of fracturing zone radius, the initial average aperture of fractures, maximum fracture length, the productivity of shale gas increases, and the increase rate gradually decreases. When the fracturing zone radius is 150 m, the daily output is approximately twice as much as that of 75 m. If the initial average aperture of fractures is 50 μm, the daily output is about half of that when the initial average aperture is 100 μm. When the maximum fracture length increases from 50 m to 100 m, the daily output only increases about by 25%. (4) When the Langmuir volume is relatively large, the daily outputs of different Langmuir volumes are almost identical, and the effect of Langmuir volume on the desorption output can almost be ignored. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Flow and Transport Properties of Unconventional Reservoirs 2018)

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20 pages, 7893 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Numerical Simulation Study on Seepage Theory of a Multi-Section Fractured Horizontal Well in Shale Gas Reservoirs Based on Multi-Scale Flow Mechanisms

by Chao Tang, Xiaofan Chen, Zhimin Du, Ping Yue and Jiabao Wei

Energies 2018, 11(9), 2329; https://doi.org/10.3390/en11092329 - 4 Sep 2018

Cited by 13 | Viewed by 3665

Abstract

Aimed at the multi-scale fractures for stimulated reservoir volume (SRV)-fractured horizontal wells in shale gas reservoirs, a mathematical model of unsteady seepage is established, which considers the characteristics of a dual media of matrix and natural fractures as well as flow in the [...] Read more.

Aimed at the multi-scale fractures for stimulated reservoir volume (SRV)-fractured horizontal wells in shale gas reservoirs, a mathematical model of unsteady seepage is established, which considers the characteristics of a dual media of matrix and natural fractures as well as flow in the large-scale hydraulic fractures, based on a discrete-fracture model. Multi-scale flow mechanisms, such as gas desorption, the Klinkenberg effect, and gas diffusion are taken into consideration. A three-dimensional numerical model based on the finite volume method is established, which includes the construction of spatial discretization, calculation of average pressure gradient, and variable at interface, etc. Some related processing techniques, such as boundedness processing upstream and downstream of grid flow, was used to limit non-physical oscillation at large-scale hydraulic fracture interfaces. The sequential solution is performed to solve the pressure equations of matrix, natural, and large-scale hydraulic fractures. The production dynamics and pressure distribution of a multi-section fractured horizontal well in a shale gas reservoir are calculated. Results indicate that, with the increase of the Langmuir volume, the average formation pressure decreases at a slow rate. Simultaneously, the initial gas production and the contribution ratio of the desorbed gas increase. With the decrease of the pore size of the matrix, gas diffusion and the Klinkenberg effect have a greater impact on shale gas production. By changing the fracture half-length and the number of fractured sections, we observe that the production process can not only pursue the long fractures or increase the number of fractured sections, but also should optimize the parameters such as the perforation position, cluster spacing, and fracturing sequence. The stimulated reservoir volume can effectively control the shale reservoir. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Flow and Transport Properties of Unconventional Reservoirs 2018)

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20 pages, 5906 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Study to Investigate Fluid-Solid Interaction Effects on Fluid Flow in Micro Scales

by Mingqiang Chen, Linsong Cheng, Renyi Cao and Chaohui Lyu

Energies 2018, 11(9), 2197; https://doi.org/10.3390/en11092197 - 22 Aug 2018

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 3884

Abstract

Due to micro-nanopores in tight formation, fluid-solid interaction effects on fluid flow in porous media cannot be ignored. In this paper, a novel model which can characterize micro-fluid flow in micro scales is proposed. This novel model has a more definite physical meaning [...] Read more.

Due to micro-nanopores in tight formation, fluid-solid interaction effects on fluid flow in porous media cannot be ignored. In this paper, a novel model which can characterize micro-fluid flow in micro scales is proposed. This novel model has a more definite physical meaning compared with other empirical models. And it is validated by micro tube experiments. In addition, the application range of the model is rigorously analyzed from a mathematical view, which indicates a wider application scope. Based on the novel model, the velocity profile, the average flow velocity and flow resistance in consideration of fluid-solid interaction are obtained. Furthermore, the novel model is incorporated into a representative pore scale network model to study fluid-solid interactions on fluid flow in porous media. Results show that due to fluid-solid interaction in micro scales, the change rules of the velocity profile, the average flow velocity and flow resistance generate obvious deviations from traditional Hagen-Poiseuille’s law. The smaller the radius and the lower the displacement pressure gradient (∇P), the more obvious the deviations will be. Moreover, the apparent permeability in consideration of fluid-solid interaction is no longer a constant, it increases with the increase of ∇P and non-linear flow appears at low ∇P. This study lays a good foundation for studying fluid flow in tight formation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Flow and Transport Properties of Unconventional Reservoirs 2018)

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15 pages, 4633 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Development of Chelating Agent-Based Polymeric Gel System for Hydraulic Fracturing

by Muhammad Shahzad Kamal, Marwan Mohammed, Mohamed Mahmoud and Salaheldin Elkatatny

Energies 2018, 11(7), 1663; https://doi.org/10.3390/en11071663 - 26 Jun 2018

Cited by 29 | Viewed by 4294

Abstract

Hydraulic Fracturing is considered to be one of the most important stimulation methods. Hydraulic Fracturing is carried out by inducing fractures in the formation to create conductive pathways for the flow of hydrocarbon. The pathways are kept open either by using proppant or [...] Read more.

Hydraulic Fracturing is considered to be one of the most important stimulation methods. Hydraulic Fracturing is carried out by inducing fractures in the formation to create conductive pathways for the flow of hydrocarbon. The pathways are kept open either by using proppant or by etching the fracture surface using acids. A typical fracturing fluid usually consists of a gelling agent (polymers), cross-linkers, buffers, clay stabilizers, gel stabilizers, biocide, surfactants, and breakers mixed with fresh water. The numerous additives are used to prevent damage resulting from such operations, or better yet, enhancing it beyond just the aim of a fracturing operation. This study introduces a new smart fracturing fluid system that can be either used for proppant fracturing (high pH) or acid fracturing (low pH) operations in sandstone formations. The fluid system consists of glutamic acid diacetic acid (GLDA) that can replace several additives, such as cross-linker, breaker, biocide, and clay stabilizer. GLDA is also a surface-active fluid that will reduce the interfacial tension eliminating the water-blockage effect. GLDA is compatible and stable with sea water, which is advantageous over the typical fracturing fluid. It is also stable in high temperature reservoirs (up to 300 °F) and it is also environmentally friendly and readily biodegradable. The new fracturing fluid formulation can withstand up to 300 °F of formation temperature and is stable for about 6 h under high shearing rates (511 s⁻¹). The new fracturing fluid formulation breaks on its own and the delay time or the breaking time can be controlled with the concentrations of the constituents of the fluid (GLDA or polymer). Coreflooding experiments were conducted using Scioto and Berea sandstone cores to evaluate the effectiveness of the developed fluid. The flooding experiments were in reasonable conformance with the rheological properties of the developed fluid regarding the thickening and breaking time, as well as yielding high return permeability. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Flow and Transport Properties of Unconventional Reservoirs 2018)

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