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Chemistry for Cultural Heritage
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Chemistry for Cultural Heritage

A special issue of Heritage (ISSN 2571-9408). This special issue belongs to the section "Cultural Heritage".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (31 December 2022) | Viewed by 44066

Special Issue Editors

Dr. Nikolaos Laskaris

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Guest Editor
Department of Industrial Desing and Production Engineering, University of West Attica, GR-12241 Athens, Greece
Interests: archaeometry; absolute dating; material characterization
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals
Dr. Georgios P. Mastrotheodoros

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Department of Antiquities and Works of Art Conservation, School of Applied Arts and Culture, West Attica University, Aegaleo, Greece
Interests: panel painting conservation; pigment identification; XRF
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals
Dr. Maria Kaparou

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Guest Editor
Institute of Nuclear and Particle Physics, NCSR Demokritos, 15310 Athens, Greece
Interests: archaeological science; materials; material culture; new technologies; digital humanities
Dr. Artemios Oikonomou

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Guest Editor
Science and Technology in Archaeology and Culture Research Center (STARC), The Cyprus Institute, 2121 Nicosia, Cyprus
Interests: archaeological science; analysis of inorganic materials; technology and provenance of materials; glass analysis; analytical techniques; SEM-EDS; XRF; LA-ICPMS

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

The field of Chemistry is vast and it encompasses a plethora of applications in the field of Cultural Heritage that span- without being limited to- from materials characterization and corrosion studies to provenance studies and dating. Practically, it provides an array of tools in deciphering the past through the study of material cultural remains. Importantly, Chemistry plays a multi-faceted role in studying, understanding, protecting and transmitting the legacy of artifacts, therefore, called to address, via the integration of multiple disciplines, mystifying questions related to unraveling human past.

Applying Chemistry in Cultural Heritage goes well beyond merely yielding information over provenance, dating, technology, manufacturing processes, paleodiet, paleoenvironment and other pertinent issues. The scientific investigation of ancient material remains can shed light to cultures’ economy, trade routes and religion, the exploitation of raw material sources and a lot more, in order to highlight complex socio-economic issues and cross-cultural links. Virtually, it can offer a kaleidoscope of insights into material culture and human history.

Thus, the application of Chemistry on Cultural Heritage by means of interdisciplinary approaches is to serve the scholarly mission of interpreting the human past. This can be achieved by the in-depth study of material remains rendering Cultural Heritage an instrument of cohesion of our global community, and ultimately, an element of wellbeing at an individual and social level.

Hence, Chemistry being central in this Special Issue, novel research applications on Cultural Heritage are welcome. While fostering the study of material culture spanning from prehistory to modern times, this issue is to encapsulate other areas of interest as well. In particular:

  • Clays and ceramics
  • Glass and glazes
  • Metals and alloys
  • Plasters and pigments
  • Chemistry for dating
  • Corrosion issues

Sincerely,

Dr. Nikolaos Laskaris
Dr. Georgios Mastrotheodoros
Dr. Maria Kaparou
Dr. Artemios Oikonomou
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Heritage is an international peer-reviewed open access monthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 1600 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

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Further information on MDPI's Special Issue polices can be found here.

Published Papers (12 papers)

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Research

19 pages, 4791 KiB  
Article
Are We Betting on the Wrong Horse? Insignificant Archaeological Leather Fragments Provide the First Evidence for the Exploitation of Horsehide in Renaissance Denmark
by Luise Ørsted Brandt, Marie Rathcke Lillemark, Mia Toftdal, Vivi Lena Andersen and Anders P. Tøttrup
Heritage 2022, 5(2), 972-990; https://doi.org/10.3390/heritage5020053 - 9 May 2022
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 3670
Abstract
Large archaeological, organic materials can be difficult to preserve, conserve, and store in their entirety, which is why prioritisation is often necessary. Priority is generally given to recognisable objects rather than smaller fragments. Nevertheless, for archaeological leather, exactly such insignificant fragments can provide [...] Read more.
Large archaeological, organic materials can be difficult to preserve, conserve, and store in their entirety, which is why prioritisation is often necessary. Priority is generally given to recognisable objects rather than smaller fragments. Nevertheless, for archaeological leather, exactly such insignificant fragments can provide new information on the diversity of species exploited. In this pilot study, we use a Citizen Science approach for the first time to identify archaeological leather fragments using the protein-based method Zooarchaeology by Mass Spectrometry (ZooMS). By inviting the public to participate in archaeological research, the project’s first 52 samples, including both recognisable and unidentifiable objects, were analysed. We show that the participants not only generated good data, but also contributed to current knowledge by identifying two hitherto undescribed animal species for leather in medieval and Renaissance Copenhagen. The finding of deer suggests that Copenhagen citizens now and then had access to game through the nobility and the finding of horse suggests that the unclean status of horses was sometimes overlooked to exploit its hide. Our findings are promising for more identifications and the new knowledge the project will generate. The study calls into question how we prioritise and assign value to cultural heritage materials. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Chemistry for Cultural Heritage)
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13 pages, 2898 KiB  
Article
X-ray Fluorescence Spectroscopy of Picrolite Raw Material on Cyprus
by Theodora Moutsiou, Demetrios Ioannides, Andreas Charalambous, Sebastian Schöder, Sam M. Webb, Mathieu Thoury, Vasiliki Kassianidou, Zomenia Zomeni and Christian Reepmeyer
Heritage 2022, 5(2), 664-676; https://doi.org/10.3390/heritage5020037 - 29 Mar 2022
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 3538
Abstract
Picrolite artefacts comprise some of the most distinctive material remains in the prehistory of the island of Cyprus, in the Eastern Mediterranean. Picrolite exploitation dates from at least 12,000 years ago for the manufacture of personal ornaments and items with a symbolic function. [...] Read more.
Picrolite artefacts comprise some of the most distinctive material remains in the prehistory of the island of Cyprus, in the Eastern Mediterranean. Picrolite exploitation dates from at least 12,000 years ago for the manufacture of personal ornaments and items with a symbolic function. It is commonly assumed that picrolite nodules were collected in secondary deposits on an ad hoc basis. This narrative, however, ignores the fact that picrolite carriers can only be found in very specific locations on the island, discrete from each other. Here we report initial outcomes of the application of handheld portable X-ray fluorescence (HHpXRF) and synchrotron-based X-ray fluorescence spectroscopy (SR-μXRF) to the analysis of picrolite raw materials performed at the newly opened PUMA beamline of the SOLEIL Synchrotron Radiation Facility. Our work refines the basic characteristics of the elemental constituents of the picrolite raw material and highlights key micro-structural differences between two distinct source regions on the Troodos Massif in western Cyprus. Picrolite source characterisation is expected to contribute significant new knowledge to the study of rare raw material consumption, prehistoric social organisation, networking and possible long-distance exchange of this idiosyncratic raw material within and beyond the island’s geographic boundaries. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Chemistry for Cultural Heritage)
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12 pages, 2326 KiB  
Article
Investigating Late Bronze Age Glass Beads from Stotfold, Bedfordshire, UK
by Sarah Paynter and Caroline M. Jackson
Heritage 2022, 5(2), 634-645; https://doi.org/10.3390/heritage5020035 - 26 Mar 2022
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2966
Abstract
A total of seventeen annular transparent blue glass beads and one cylindrical glass bead with opaque grey-white decoration were found at a site near Stotfold, in Bedfordshire, England. The beads were part of a cremation burial (without an urn), associated with small fragments [...] Read more.
A total of seventeen annular transparent blue glass beads and one cylindrical glass bead with opaque grey-white decoration were found at a site near Stotfold, in Bedfordshire, England. The beads were part of a cremation burial (without an urn), associated with small fragments of gold sheet and bone, and the latter were carbon dated to 1303-1052 calBC with 95% probability. Analysis (quantitative using SEM-EDS and qualitative using XRF) found that the beads are made from low magnesium, high potassium (LMHK) glass, of the type prevalent in Europe between around 1200 and 900 BC. The grey-white trail on the cylindrical bead is opacified in a novel way, as neither tin nor antimony colourants were used. These are only the second confirmed example of LMHK glass beads from England, and the earliest in date. They provide evidence of networks extending between this community and continental Europe in the Later Bronze Age, and the burial of a high-status individual at Stotfold. Experimental recreation is used to investigate the possible methods of making the glass, using plant ashes, copper oxide, and quartz sand. A multi-stage process is proposed, using a low temperature firing before the final high temperature melting and homogenising. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Chemistry for Cultural Heritage)
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22 pages, 5419 KiB  
Article
An Introduction to the Electron Paramagnetic Resonance Spectral Library of Pigments
by Olivia R. Kuzio and Joseph P. Hornak
Heritage 2022, 5(1), 545-566; https://doi.org/10.3390/heritage5010031 - 21 Mar 2022
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 3838
Abstract
A library cataloguing the electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) spectra of artists’ pigments has been created. It contains spectral data collected using several spectrometers that operate at different frequencies for, currently, 51 pigments. The library is intended to serve as an open-access reference database [...] Read more.
A library cataloguing the electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) spectra of artists’ pigments has been created. It contains spectral data collected using several spectrometers that operate at different frequencies for, currently, 51 pigments. The library is intended to serve as an open-access reference database for the scientific studies of cultural heritage objects that utilize this analytical technique. Furthermore, it is a living repository, in that entries will be added as more pigments found to have EPR signals at room temperature are studied. Because EPR is less well established in the field of heritage science than some other common spectroscopies, this companion paper serves as an educational supplement to the library. It focuses on first, describing the theory of EPR to the level necessary to understand the origins of spectral features and to utilize these for pigment identification, and then, on discussing the organization of the library to facilitate the navigation of its contents. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Chemistry for Cultural Heritage)
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22 pages, 5047 KiB  
Article
Production Technology of Glazed Pottery in Chalcis, Euboea, during the Middle Byzantine Period
by Adamantia Panagopoulou, Joanita Vroom, Anno Hein and Vassilis Kilikoglou
Heritage 2021, 4(4), 4473-4494; https://doi.org/10.3390/heritage4040247 - 25 Nov 2021
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 3784
Abstract
This paper focuses on various categories of glazed pottery, which were in circulation in western Euboea (Greece) during the Middle Byzantine and Late Byzantine periods. The production technology and particularly the surface treatment of Byzantine glazed pottery have been investigated on the basis [...] Read more.
This paper focuses on various categories of glazed pottery, which were in circulation in western Euboea (Greece) during the Middle Byzantine and Late Byzantine periods. The production technology and particularly the surface treatment of Byzantine glazed pottery have been investigated on the basis of 56 ceramic fragments from a rescue excavation in Orionos street in Chalkis, Euboea. This paper focuses on the manufacture of glazed pottery within the local pottery repertoire of Chalkis, while trying to contextualise the pottery typology and to consider the issues of technology. The chemical analysis by non-invasive energy dispersive X-ray fluorescence (XRF) and Scanning electron microscopy (SEM-EDS) provided information about the compositional variation of the examined glazed ceramics assemblage. Moreover, sections of the samples were examined by optical microscopy and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) in order to determine the microstructure of the samples, as well as the vitrification and the porosity of the ceramic body. Finally, X-ray diffraction (XRD) was applied for qualitative mineralogical analysis indicating presence or absence of high temperature phases and information about firing conditions. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Chemistry for Cultural Heritage)
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21 pages, 9438 KiB  
Article
Materials and Techniques of Selected Mural Paintings on the “Gothic Road” around 1400 (Slovakia)
by Anabelle Kriznar and Jana Želinská
Heritage 2021, 4(4), 4105-4125; https://doi.org/10.3390/heritage4040226 - 31 Oct 2021
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2984
Abstract
Mural cycles in the churches of Plešivec, Čhyžné, and Štitnik from around 1400 were studied from the material and technical point of view. Stylistically, they show a mixture of Northern and Southern European stylistic currents, which were characteristic for the time around 1400 [...] Read more.
Mural cycles in the churches of Plešivec, Čhyžné, and Štitnik from around 1400 were studied from the material and technical point of view. Stylistically, they show a mixture of Northern and Southern European stylistic currents, which were characteristic for the time around 1400 in East Central Europe. After a precise study in situ, an analysis of extracted samples was conducted by OM, SEM-EDX, and XRD. The plasters used for these murals were all made of lime and sand with different impurities; importantly, they different among each other in terms of their quality and stability. The pigments that were used in these murals were natural and organic: lime white, yellow and red earths, malachite, and azurite were identified, and some pigment degradations were also pointed out. The principal technique is a fresco, but all murals were finished a secco in different proportions, using an organic binder. Painting procedures and modelling were also studied, revealing a strong difference among all three cycles. The painting technique does not always correspond to the style. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Chemistry for Cultural Heritage)
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19 pages, 8019 KiB  
Article
Iranian Glazed Ceramics of the 12th—Beginning of the 13th Centuries in the Volga Bulgaria
by Svetlana Valiulina
Heritage 2021, 4(4), 3712-3730; https://doi.org/10.3390/heritage4040204 - 20 Oct 2021
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 3932
Abstract
This article is devoted to the analysis of Iranian art ceramics from the monuments of the Volga Bulgaria of the 12th to early 13th centuries. As a historical source, glazed ceramics have great opportunities in determining the directions of trade and cultural links, [...] Read more.
This article is devoted to the analysis of Iranian art ceramics from the monuments of the Volga Bulgaria of the 12th to early 13th centuries. As a historical source, glazed ceramics have great opportunities in determining the directions of trade and cultural links, as well as priorities of intercultural interaction. It is especially important that the materials under consideration were obtained as a result of excavations, which means that they are stratified and provided with an archaeological context. Iranian ceramics are represented by fritware luster, mina’i, and pierced decoration. The study was carried out using morphological and stylistic methods and scanning electron microscopy method (SEM-EDS). Based on the results of the work, the technological characteristics of glazed ceramics, the stability of the craft tradition, and some changes in recipes within the same morphological group have been determined. The dynamics and chronology of the import flow from Iran to the Middle Volga are established, which revealed correspondence to the main stages of urban culture development of the Volga Bulgaria. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Chemistry for Cultural Heritage)
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19 pages, 2076 KiB  
Article
Organic Remains in Early Christian Egyptian Metal Vessels: Investigation with Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy and Gas Chromatography–Mass Spectrometry
by Kyriaki Koupadi, Stamatis C. Boyatzis, Maria Roumpou, Nick Kalogeropoulos and Despoina Kotzamani
Heritage 2021, 4(4), 3611-3629; https://doi.org/10.3390/heritage4040199 - 18 Oct 2021
Cited by 15 | Viewed by 3643
Abstract
Organic remains preserved on eight copper alloy artifacts of the Byzantine Collection of the Benaki Museum with an Egyptian provenance were investigated, implementing a multi-analytical approach combining microscopy-FTIR and GC/MS. The transmission spectra of powder samples provided important information on the vessels regarding [...] Read more.
Organic remains preserved on eight copper alloy artifacts of the Byzantine Collection of the Benaki Museum with an Egyptian provenance were investigated, implementing a multi-analytical approach combining microscopy-FTIR and GC/MS. The transmission spectra of powder samples provided important information on the vessels regarding inorganic and organic components. In the latter case, subsequent extractions with a range of solvents allowed discrimination of components with different polarities and provided data on the suitability of the solvents for the acquisition of more informative spectra. GC/MS was implemented for the detailed characterization of the compounds present in the samples because of the complex nature of the residues preserved. A wide range of fatty acid oxidation products was identified, including a series of α, ω-dicarboxylic acids typical of such remains. In addition, vicinal dihydroxy-docosanoic and dihydroxy-eicosanoic acid, oxidation products of erucic and gondoic acid, respectively, were detected. Both are found in abundance in oils from plants belonging to the Brassicaceae family and imply their multiple uses in medieval Egypt. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Chemistry for Cultural Heritage)
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23 pages, 47898 KiB  
Article
Pottery of Early Iron Age from the Glinjeni II-La Șanț (North-Western Pontic Sea Region): Composition, Technology and Raw Material Sources
by Marianna A. Kulkova, Maya T. Kashuba, Aleksandr M. Kulkov and Maria N. Vetrova
Heritage 2021, 4(4), 2853-2875; https://doi.org/10.3390/heritage4040160 - 29 Sep 2021
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2148
Abstract
Transition to the Early Iron Age was marked by the appearance of innovations such as iron technology and changes in the lifestyle of local societies on the territory of the North-Western Pontic Sea region. One of the most interesting sites of this period [...] Read more.
Transition to the Early Iron Age was marked by the appearance of innovations such as iron technology and changes in the lifestyle of local societies on the territory of the North-Western Pontic Sea region. One of the most interesting sites of this period is the Glinjeni II-La Șanț fortified settlement, located in the Middle Dniester basin (Republic of Moldova). Materials of different cultural traditions belonged to the Cozia-Saharna culture (10th–9th cc. BC) and the Basarabi-Șoldănești culture (8th–beginning of 7th cc. BC) were found on this site. The article presents the results of a multidisciplinary approach to the study of ceramic sherds from these archaeological complexes and cultural layers as well as raw clay sources from this area. The archaeometry analysis, such as the XRF-WD, the thin section analysis, SEM-EDX of ceramics, m-CT of pottery were carried out. The study of ancient pottery through a set of mineralogical and geochemical analytic methods allowed us to obtain new results about ceramic technology in different chronological periods, ceramic paste recipes and firing conditions. Correlation of archaeological and archaeometry data of ceramics from the Glinjeni II-La Șanț site gives us the possibility to differ earlier and later chronological markers in the paste recipes of pottery of 10th–beginning of 7th cc. BC in the region of the Middle Dniester basin. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Chemistry for Cultural Heritage)
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25 pages, 58393 KiB  
Article
A Tale of Two Legacies: Byzantine and Egyptian Influences in the Manufacture and Supply of Glass Tesserae under the Umayyad Caliphate (661–750 AD)
by Sara Fiorentino
Heritage 2021, 4(4), 2810-2834; https://doi.org/10.3390/heritage4040158 - 29 Sep 2021
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2675
Abstract
The connection between Umayyad and Byzantine mosaic manufacture is a debated issue: on the one hand, Arab sources report that Umayyad caliphs received craftspeople and materials to adorn religious buildings from the Byzantine emperor; on the other hand, the reliability of these texts [...] Read more.
The connection between Umayyad and Byzantine mosaic manufacture is a debated issue: on the one hand, Arab sources report that Umayyad caliphs received craftspeople and materials to adorn religious buildings from the Byzantine emperor; on the other hand, the reliability of these texts has long been disputed among scholars, and other possible influences have been hypothesised. Was early Islamic mosaic manufacture related to Byzantine tradition and to what extent? Were materials and artisans gathered from Byzantium and/or territories under the Byzantine control? Based on a multi-analytical approach, glass tesserae from Khirbat al-Mafjar, the Great Mosque of Damascus, and the Dome of the Rock have been analysed. Results speak of a tale of two legacies, demonstrating that, parallel to a continuity with the manufacture of glass tesserae in the late antique Levant—pointing, more specifically, to a re-use of materials from abandoned buildings—legacies other than Byzantine occurred. It emerged that Egypt definitively played a role in mosaic making during the Umayyad caliphate, acting as a supplier of skilled artisans and materials. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Chemistry for Cultural Heritage)
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17 pages, 4854 KiB  
Article
Multi-Scale Characterization of Unusual Green and Blue Pigments from the Pharaonic Town of Amara West, Nubia
by Kate Fulcher, Ruth Siddall, Trevor F. Emmett and Neal Spencer
Heritage 2021, 4(3), 2563-2579; https://doi.org/10.3390/heritage4030145 - 20 Sep 2021
Cited by 9 | Viewed by 4843
Abstract
Pigments from paint palettes and a grindstone excavated from the pharaonic town of Amara West (c. 1300–1050 BCE), which lies between the Second and Third Cataracts of the Nile, were examined using polarized light microscopy, attenuated total reflection Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (ATR-FTIR), [...] Read more.
Pigments from paint palettes and a grindstone excavated from the pharaonic town of Amara West (c. 1300–1050 BCE), which lies between the Second and Third Cataracts of the Nile, were examined using polarized light microscopy, attenuated total reflection Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (ATR-FTIR), X-ray diffraction, and scanning electron microscopy with energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy. Most of the pigments were consistent with the typical ancient Egyptian palette, but the greens and some blues were unusual. Two types of green pigment were identified, chlorite (varieties clinochlore and penninite) and copper chloride hydroxide (atacamite type). The former constitutes a type of green earth which has only rarely been identified in pharaonic Egyptian contexts and may be more widespread than is currently reported. The majority of the blue pigment samples were Egyptian blue, but some were found to be a blue earth, the main component of which being sodic amphibole riebeckite. The use of this mineral as a pigment has not previously been reported in any Nile Valley context. These results prompt questions around local and potentially indigenous practices within an ancient colonial context, and highlight avenues for future research. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Chemistry for Cultural Heritage)
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23 pages, 10385 KiB  
Article
Chemical Characterization of Pope Pius VII Ancient Ecclesiastical Vestment by a Multi-Analytical Approach
by Donata Magrini, Susanna Bracci, Roberta Iannaccone, Lucia Nucci and Barbara Salvadori
Heritage 2021, 4(3), 1616-1638; https://doi.org/10.3390/heritage4030090 - 6 Aug 2021
Viewed by 2510
Abstract
This paper presents a multi-analytical investigation performed for the study of the ecclesiastical vestment, with insignia, of Pope Pius VII, painted from the end of the 18th up to the beginning of the 19th century, made of five clothing elements: chasuble, stole, maniple, [...] Read more.
This paper presents a multi-analytical investigation performed for the study of the ecclesiastical vestment, with insignia, of Pope Pius VII, painted from the end of the 18th up to the beginning of the 19th century, made of five clothing elements: chasuble, stole, maniple, chalice veil and purse. The aim of this research was to assess the conservation state of the silk and painted backgrounds; to define the manufacturing technique of the work; to localize, if present, the underdrawing and any retouching; to identify the pigments and, where possible, the binders used. A diagnostic protocol was developed based on preliminary investigations through multiband imaging techniques known as MBI (visible, ultraviolet-induced visible luminescence (UVL), near-infrared reflected (NIR) and infrared reflected false color (IRRFC) photography). The images acquired with MBI techniques ensured a more specific choice of spots to be analyzed directly in situ by non-invasive techniques. In particular, portable digital optical microscopy and X-ray fluorescence (XRF) were performed. Two fragments detached from the chasuble were also analyzed by microFT-IR, microRaman, scanning electron microscopy (SEM-EDS) and gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (GC-MS). Application of the multi-analytical protocol enabled the materials used to be characterized and helped to define the peculiar execution technique used. The presence of an underdrawing made with a carbon pencil was highlighted by MBI. Red lakes, iron-based pigments and copper-based pigments have been identified on the painting palette, applied with arabic gum as a binder. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Chemistry for Cultural Heritage)
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