International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health

Editorial

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7 pages, 279 KiB

Open AccessEditorial

Antimicrobials and Antimicrobial Resistance in the Environment and Its Remediation: A Global One Health Perspective

by Ashok J. Tamhankar and Cecilia Stålsby Lundborg

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2019, 16(23), 4614; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16234614 - 20 Nov 2019

Cited by 15 | Viewed by 3436

Abstract

The awareness about pollution of the environment by antimicrobials/antibiotics is increasing globally [...] Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Antimicrobials and Antimicrobial Resistance in the Environment)

Research

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10 pages, 1656 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Susceptibility of Multidrug-Resistant Bacteria, Isolated from Water and Plants in Nigeria, to Ceragenins

by Marjan M. Hashemi, Augusta O. Mmuoegbulam, Brett S. Holden, Jordan Coburn, John Wilson, Maddison F. Taylor, Joseph Reiley, Darius Baradaran, Tania Stenquist, Shenglou Deng and Paul B. Savage

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2018, 15(12), 2758; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph15122758 - 6 Dec 2018

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 3768

Abstract

The continuous emergence of multidrug resistant pathogens is a major global health concern. Although antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) have shown promise as a possible means of combatting multidrug resistant strains without readily engendering resistance, costs of production and targeting by proteases limit their utility. [...] Read more.

The continuous emergence of multidrug resistant pathogens is a major global health concern. Although antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) have shown promise as a possible means of combatting multidrug resistant strains without readily engendering resistance, costs of production and targeting by proteases limit their utility. Ceragenins are non-peptide AMP mimics that overcome these shortcomings while retaining broad-spectrum antimicrobial activity. To further characterize the antibacterial activities of ceragenins, their activities against a collection of environmental isolates of bacteria were determined. These isolates were isolated in Nigeria from plants and water. Minimum inhibitory concentrations (MICs) and minimum bactericidal concentrations (MBCs) of selected ceragenins and currently available antimicrobials against these isolates were measured to determine resistance patterns. Using scanning electron microscopy (SEM), we examined the morphological changes in bacterial membranes following treatment with ceragenins. Finally, we investigated the effectiveness of ceragenins in inhibiting biofilm formation and destroying established biofilms. We found that, despite high resistance to many currently available antimicrobials, including colistin, environmental isolates in planktonic and biofilm forms remain susceptible to ceragenins. Additionally, SEM and confocal images of ceragenin-treated cells confirmed the effective antibacterial and antibiofilm activity of ceragenins. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Antimicrobials and Antimicrobial Resistance in the Environment)

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11 pages, 2704 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Sunlight Assisted Photocatalytic Degradation of Ciprofloxacin in Water Using Fe Doped ZnO Nanoparticles for Potential Public Health Applications

by Sourav Das, Soumen Ghosh, Ananyo Jyoti Misra, Ashok J. Tamhankar, Amrita Mishra, Cecilia Stålsby Lundborg and Suraj K. Tripathy

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2018, 15(11), 2440; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph15112440 - 1 Nov 2018

Cited by 75 | Viewed by 7032

Abstract

Antibiotic residues in the aquatic environment have the potential to induce resistance in environmental bacteria, which ultimately might get transferred to pathogens making treatment of diseases difficult and poses a serious threat to public health. If antibiotic residues in the environment could be [...] Read more.

Antibiotic residues in the aquatic environment have the potential to induce resistance in environmental bacteria, which ultimately might get transferred to pathogens making treatment of diseases difficult and poses a serious threat to public health. If antibiotic residues in the environment could be eliminated or reduced, it could contribute to minimizing antibiotic resistance. Towards this objective, water containing ciprofloxacin was treated by sunlight-assisted photocatalysis using Fe- doped ZnO nanoparticles for assessing the degradation potential of this system. Parameters like pH, temperature, catalytic dosage were assessed for the optimum performance of the system. To evaluate degradation of ciprofloxacin, both spectrophotometric as well as microbiological (loss of antibiotic activity) methods were employed. 100 mg/L Fe-doped ZnO nanoparticle catalyst and sunlight intensity of 120,000–135,000 lux system gave optimum performance at pH 9 at 30 °C and 40 °C. Under these conditions spectrophotometric analysis showed complete degradation of ciprofloxacin (10 mg/L) at 210 min. Microbiological studies showed loss of antibacterial activity of the photocatalytically treated ciprofloxacin-containing water against Staphylococcus aureus (10⁸ CFU) in 60 min and for Escherichia coli (10⁸ CFU) in 75 min. The developed system, thus possess a potential for treatment of antibiotic contaminated waters for eliminating/reducing antibiotic residues from environment. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Antimicrobials and Antimicrobial Resistance in the Environment)

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12 pages, 1834 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Prevalence of Integrons and Insertion Sequences in ESBL-Producing E. coli Isolated from Different Sources in Navarra, Spain

by Lara Pérez-Etayo, Melibea Berzosa, David González and Ana Isabel Vitas

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2018, 15(10), 2308; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph15102308 - 20 Oct 2018

Cited by 29 | Viewed by 4689

Abstract

Mobile genetic elements play an important role in the dissemination of antibiotic resistant bacteria among human and environmental sources. Therefore, the aim of this study was to determine the occurrence and patterns of integrons and insertion sequences of extended-spectrum β-lactamase (ESBL)-producing Escherichia coli [...] Read more.

Mobile genetic elements play an important role in the dissemination of antibiotic resistant bacteria among human and environmental sources. Therefore, the aim of this study was to determine the occurrence and patterns of integrons and insertion sequences of extended-spectrum β-lactamase (ESBL)-producing Escherichia coli isolated from different sources in Navarra, northern Spain. A total of 150 isolates coming from food products, farms and feeds, aquatic environments, and humans (healthy people and hospital inpatients), were analyzed. PCRs were applied for the study of class 1, 2, and 3 integrons (intI1, intI2, and intI3), as well as for the determination of insertion sequences (IS26, ISEcp1, ISCR1, and IS903). Results show the wide presence and dissemination of intI1 (92%), while intI3 was not detected. It is remarkable, the prevalence of intI2 among food isolates, as well as the co-existence of class 1 and class 2 (8% of isolates). The majority of isolates have two or three IS elements, with the most common being IS26 (99.4%). The genetic pattern IS26–ISEcp1 (related with the pathogen clone ST131) was present in the 22% of isolates (including human isolates). In addition, the combination ISEcp1–IS26–IS903–ISCR1 was detected in 11 isolates being, to our knowledge, the first study that describes this genetic complex. Due to the wide variability observed, no relationship was determined among these mobile genetic elements and β-lactam resistance. More investigations regarding the genetic composition of these elements are needed to understand the role of multiple types of integrons and insertion sequences on the dissemination of antimicrobial resistance genes among different environments. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Antimicrobials and Antimicrobial Resistance in the Environment)

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16 pages, 1333 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Resistance of Escherichia coli in Turkeys after Therapeutic or Environmental Exposition with Enrofloxacin Depending on Flooring

by Bussarakam Chuppava, Birgit Keller, Amr Abd El-Wahab, Jessica Meißner, Manfred Kietzmann and Christian Visscher

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2018, 15(9), 1993; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph15091993 - 13 Sep 2018

Cited by 16 | Viewed by 3959

Abstract

Gaining knowledge about the spread of resistance against antibacterial agents is a primary challenge in livestock farming. The purpose of this study was to test the effect of double antibiotic treatment (at days 10–14 and days 26–30) with enrofloxacin or solely environmental exposition [...] Read more.

Gaining knowledge about the spread of resistance against antibacterial agents is a primary challenge in livestock farming. The purpose of this study was to test the effect of double antibiotic treatment (at days 10–14 and days 26–30) with enrofloxacin or solely environmental exposition (identical times, directly into the litter) on resistance against antibacterial agents in commensal Escherichia coli in comparison with the control (without treatment), depending on different flooring. A total of 720 Big 6 turkeys participated in three trials. Four different flooring designs were examined: An entire floor pen covered with litter, a floor pen with heating, a partially slatted flooring including 50% littered area, and a fully slatted flooring with a sand bath. A total of 864 Escherichia coli isolates were obtained from cloacal swabs and poultry manure samples at days 2, 9, 15, 21, and 35. The broth microdilution method (MIC) was used to determine the resistance of isolates to enrofloxacin and ampicillin. A double antibiotic treatment with enrofloxacin reduced the proportion of susceptible Escherichia coli isolates significantly in all flooring designs. Simulation of water losses had no significant effect, nor did the flooring design. Ampicillin-resistant isolates were observed, despite not using ampicillin. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Antimicrobials and Antimicrobial Resistance in the Environment)

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10 pages, 1074 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Pathogenic Escherichia coli Strains Recovered from Selected Aquatic Resources in the Eastern Cape, South Africa, and Its Significance to Public Health

by Kingsley Ehi Ebomah, Martins Ajibade Adefisoye and Anthony Ifeanyi Okoh

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2018, 15(7), 1506; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph15071506 - 17 Jul 2018

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 5165

Abstract

The prevalence of pathogenic microorganisms, as well as the proliferation of antimicrobial resistance, pose a significant threat to public health. However, the magnitude of the impact of aquatic environs concerning the advent and propagation of resistance genes remains vague. Escherichia coli (E. [...] Read more.

The prevalence of pathogenic microorganisms, as well as the proliferation of antimicrobial resistance, pose a significant threat to public health. However, the magnitude of the impact of aquatic environs concerning the advent and propagation of resistance genes remains vague. Escherichia coli (E. coli) are widespread and encompass a variety of strains, ranging from non-pathogenic to highly pathogenic. This study reports on the incidence and antibiotic susceptibility profiles of E. coli isolates recovered from the Nahoon beach and its canal waters in South Africa. A total of 73 out of 107 (68.2%) Polymerase chain reaction confirmed E. coli isolates were found to be affirmative for at least one virulence factor. These comprised of enteropathogenic E. coli 11 (10.3%), enteroinvasive E. coli 14 (13.1%), and neonatal meningitis E. coli 48 (44.9%). The phenotypic antibiogram profiles of the confirmed isolates revealed that all 73 (100%) were resistant to ampicillin, whereas 67 (91.8%) of the pathotypes were resistant to amikacin, gentamicin, and ceftazidime. About 61 (83.6%) and 51 (69.9%) were resistant to tetracycline and ciprofloxacin, respectively, and about 21.9% (16) demonstrated multiple instances of antibiotic resistance, with 100% exhibiting resistance to eight antibiotics. The conclusion from our findings is that the Nahoon beach and its canal waters are reservoirs of potentially virulent and antibiotic-resistant E. coli strains, which thus constitute a potent public health risk. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Antimicrobials and Antimicrobial Resistance in the Environment)

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23 pages, 3270 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Antimicrobial Resistance in Food Animals and the Environment in Nigeria: A Review

by Nurudeen Olalekan Oloso, Shamsudeen Fagbo, Musa Garbati, Steve O. Olonitola, Emmanuel Jolaoluwa Awosanya, Mabel Kamweli Aworh, Helen Adamu, Ismail Ayoade Odetokun and Folorunso Oludayo Fasina

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2018, 15(6), 1284; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph15061284 - 17 Jun 2018

Cited by 59 | Viewed by 12792

Abstract

Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) has emerged as a global health threat, which has elicited a high-level political declaration at the United Nations General Assembly, 2016. In response, member countries agreed to pay greater attention to the surveillance and implementation of antimicrobial stewardship. The Nigeria [...] Read more.

Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) has emerged as a global health threat, which has elicited a high-level political declaration at the United Nations General Assembly, 2016. In response, member countries agreed to pay greater attention to the surveillance and implementation of antimicrobial stewardship. The Nigeria Centre for Disease Control called for a review of AMR in Nigeria using a “One Health approach”. As anecdotal evidence suggests that food animal health and production rely heavily on antimicrobials, it becomes imperative to understand AMR trends in food animals and the environment. We reviewed previous studies to curate data and evaluate the contributions of food animals and the environment (2000–2016) to the AMR burden in Nigeria using a Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) flowchart focused on three areas: Antimicrobial resistance, residues, and antiseptics studies. Only one of the 48 antimicrobial studies did not report multidrug resistance. At least 18 bacterial spp. were found to be resistant to various locally available antimicrobials. All 16 residue studies reported high levels of drug residues either in the form of prevalence or concentration above the recommended international limit. Fourteen different “resistotypes” were found in some commonly used antiseptics. High levels of residues and AMR were found in food animals destined for the human food chain. High levels of residues and antimicrobials discharged into environments sustain the AMR pool. These had evolved into potential public health challenges that need attention. These findings constitute public health threats for Nigeria’s teeming population and require attention. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Antimicrobials and Antimicrobial Resistance in the Environment)

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13 pages, 2277 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Assessing the Linkages between Knowledge and Use of Veterinary Antibiotics by Pig Farmers in Rural China

by Xiujuan Chen, Linhai Wu and Xuyan Xie

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2018, 15(6), 1126; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph15061126 - 31 May 2018

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 3741

Abstract

Improper use of veterinary antibiotics (VAs) has led to antibiotic resistance and food safety issues that are harmful for sustainable development and public health. In this study, farmers’ knowledge influencing their usage of veterinary antibiotics was analyzed based on a survey of 654 [...] Read more.

Improper use of veterinary antibiotics (VAs) has led to antibiotic resistance and food safety issues that are harmful for sustainable development and public health. In this study, farmers’ knowledge influencing their usage of veterinary antibiotics was analyzed based on a survey of 654 pig farmers in Funing County, China. A behavior probability model was constructed, and a Matlab simulation was used to evaluate the dynamic changes in farmers’ behavioral choice regarding VAs use. The survey results showed that the 654 pig farmers’ knowledge of VAs were relatively poor, along with a high occurrence of improper behavior. Specifically, 68.35% of the 654 surveyed pig farmers admitted their violation of VAs use regulations, while 55.50% among them overused and 24.31% among them misused VAs. The simulation results showed that the probability of improper VA use decreased with the increase in farmers’ knowledge about VA use specification, and when farmers’ knowledge about the hazards of VA residues increased. However, when farmers had a high level of knowledge about relevant laws and their penalties, there was still a high probability of improper VA use. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Antimicrobials and Antimicrobial Resistance in the Environment)

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14 pages, 738 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Antibiotic-Resistant Pathogenic Escherichia Coli Isolated from Rooftop Rainwater-Harvesting Tanks in the Eastern Cape, South Africa

by Mokaba Shirley Malema, Akebe Luther King Abia, Roman Tandlich, Bonga Zuma, Jean-Marc Mwenge Kahinda and Eunice Ubomba-Jaswa

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2018, 15(5), 892; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph15050892 - 1 May 2018

Cited by 22 | Viewed by 6284

Abstract

Although many developing countries use harvested rainwater (HRW) for drinking and other household purposes, its quality is seldom monitored. Continuous assessment of the microbial quality of HRW would ensure the safety of users of such water. The current study investigated the prevalence of [...] Read more.

Although many developing countries use harvested rainwater (HRW) for drinking and other household purposes, its quality is seldom monitored. Continuous assessment of the microbial quality of HRW would ensure the safety of users of such water. The current study investigated the prevalence of pathogenic Escherichia coli strains and their antimicrobial resistance patterns in HRW tanks in the Eastern Cape, South Africa. Rainwater samples were collected weekly between June and September 2016 from 11 tanks in various areas of the province. Enumeration of E. coli was performed using the Colilert^®18/Quanti-Tray^® 2000 method. E. coli isolates were obtained and screened for their virulence potentials using polymerase chain reaction (PCR), and subsequently tested for antibiotic resistance using the disc-diffusion method against 11 antibiotics. The pathotype most detected was the neonatal meningitis E. coli (NMEC) (ibeA 28%) while pathotype enteroaggregative E. coli (EAEC) was not detected. The highest resistance of the E. coli isolates was observed against Cephalothin (76%). All tested pathotypes were susceptible to Gentamicin, and 52% demonstrated multiple-antibiotic resistance (MAR). The results of the current study are of public health concern since the use of untreated harvested rainwater for potable purposes may pose a risk of transmission of pathogenic and antimicrobial-resistant E. coli. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Antimicrobials and Antimicrobial Resistance in the Environment)

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11 pages, 303 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Multiresistant Bacteria Isolated from Activated Sludge in Austria

by Herbert Galler, Gebhard Feierl, Christian Petternel, Franz F. Reinthaler, Doris Haas, Juliana Habib, Clemens Kittinger, Josefa Luxner and Gernot Zarfel

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2018, 15(3), 479; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph15030479 - 9 Mar 2018

Cited by 36 | Viewed by 5242

Abstract

Wastewater contains different kinds of contaminants, including antibiotics and bacterial isolates with human-generated antibiotic resistances. In industrialized countries most of the wastewater is processed in wastewater treatment plants which do not only include commercial wastewater, but also wastewater from hospitals. Three multiresistant pathogens—extended [...] Read more.

Wastewater contains different kinds of contaminants, including antibiotics and bacterial isolates with human-generated antibiotic resistances. In industrialized countries most of the wastewater is processed in wastewater treatment plants which do not only include commercial wastewater, but also wastewater from hospitals. Three multiresistant pathogens—extended spectrum β-lactamase (ESBL)-harbouring Enterobacteriaceae (Gram negative bacilli), methicillin resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) and vancomycin resistant Enterococci (VRE)—were chosen for screening in a state of the art wastewater treatment plant in Austria. Over an investigation period of six months all three multiresistant pathogens could be isolated from activated sludge. ESBL was the most common resistance mechanism, which was found in different species of Enterobacteriaceae, and in one Aeromonas spp. Sequencing of ESBL genes revealed the dominance of genes encoding members of CTX-M β-lactamases family and a gene encoding for PER-1 ESBL was detected for the first time in Austria. MRSA and VRE could be isolated sporadically, including one EMRSA-15 isolate. Whereas ESBL is well documented as a surface water contaminant, reports of MRSA and VRE are rare. The results of this study show that these three multiresistant phenotypes were present in activated sludge, as well as species and genes which were not reported before in the region. The ESBL-harbouring Gram negative bacilli were most common. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Antimicrobials and Antimicrobial Resistance in the Environment)

14 pages, 653 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Diversity and Antimicrobial Resistance Genotypes in Non-Typhoidal Salmonella Isolates from Poultry Farms in Uganda

by Terence Odoch, Camilla Sekse, Trine M. L’Abee-Lund, Helge Christoffer Høgberg Hansen, Clovice Kankya and Yngvild Wasteson

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2018, 15(2), 324; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph15020324 - 13 Feb 2018

Cited by 26 | Viewed by 5977

Abstract

Non-typhoidal Salmonella (NTS) are foodborne pathogens of global public health significance. The aim of this study was to subtype a collection of 85 NTS originating from poultry farms in Uganda, and to evaluate a subgroup of phenotypically resistant isolates for common antimicrobial resistance [...] Read more.

Non-typhoidal Salmonella (NTS) are foodborne pathogens of global public health significance. The aim of this study was to subtype a collection of 85 NTS originating from poultry farms in Uganda, and to evaluate a subgroup of phenotypically resistant isolates for common antimicrobial resistance genes and associated integrons. All isolates were subtyped by pulsed-field gel electrophoresis (PFGE). Phenotypically resistant isolates (n = 54) were screened by PCR for the most relevant AMR genes corresponding to their phenotypic resistance pattern, and all 54 isolates were screened by PCR for the presence of integron class 1 and 2 encoding genes. These genes are known to commonly encode resistance to ampicillin, tetracycline, ciprofloxacin, trimethoprim, sulfonamide and chloramphenicol. PFGE revealed 15 pulsotypes representing 11 serotypes from 75 isolates, as 10 were non-typable. Thirty one (57.4%) of the 54 resistant isolates carried at least one of the seven genes (bla_TEM-1, cmlA, tetA, qnrS, sul1, dhfrI, dhfrVII) identified by PCR and six (11%) carried class 1 integrons. This study has shown that a diversity of NTS-clones are present in Ugandan poultry farm settings, while at the same time similar NTS-clones occur in different farms and areas. The presence of resistance genes to important antimicrobials used in human and veterinary medicine has been demonstrated, hence the need to strengthen strategies to combat antimicrobial resistance at all levels. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Antimicrobials and Antimicrobial Resistance in the Environment)

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Open AccessArticle

Antibiotic Resistance of Acinetobacter spp. Isolates from the River Danube: Susceptibility Stays High

by Clemens Kittinger, Alexander Kirschner, Michaela Lipp, Rita Baumert, Franz Mascher, Andreas H. Farnleitner and Gernot E. Zarfel

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2018, 15(1), 52; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph15010052 - 30 Dec 2017

Cited by 39 | Viewed by 5888

Abstract

Acinetobacter spp. occur naturally in many different habitats, including food, soil, and surface waters. In clinical settings, Acinetobacter poses an increasing health problem, causing infections with limited to no antibiotic therapeutic options left. The presence of human generated multidrug resistant strains is well [...] Read more.

Acinetobacter spp. occur naturally in many different habitats, including food, soil, and surface waters. In clinical settings, Acinetobacter poses an increasing health problem, causing infections with limited to no antibiotic therapeutic options left. The presence of human generated multidrug resistant strains is well documented but the extent to how widely they are distributed within the Acinetobacter population is unknown. In this study, Acinetobacter spp. were isolated from water samples at 14 sites of the whole course of the river Danube. Susceptibility testing was carried out for 14 clinically relevant antibiotics from six different antibiotic classes. Isolates showing a carbapenem resistance phenotype were screened with PCR and sequencing for the underlying resistance mechanism of carbapenem resistance. From the Danube river water, 262 Acinetobacter were isolated, the most common species was Acinetobacter baumannii with 135 isolates. Carbapenem and multiresistant isolates were rare but one isolate could be found which was only susceptible to colistin. The genetic background of carbapenem resistance was mostly based on typical Acinetobacter OXA enzymes but also on VIM-2. The population of Acinetobacter (baumannii and non-baumannii) revealed a significant proportion of human-generated antibiotic resistance and multiresistance, but the majority of the isolates stayed susceptible to most of the tested antibiotics. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Antimicrobials and Antimicrobial Resistance in the Environment)

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Open AccessArticle

Antibiotic Susceptibility, Genetic Diversity, and the Presence of Toxin Producing Genes in Campylobacter Isolates from Poultry

by Jeeyeon Lee, Jiyeon Jeong, Heeyoung Lee, Jimyeong Ha, Sejeong Kim, Yukyung Choi, Hyemin Oh, Kunho Seo, Yohan Yoon and Soomin Lee

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2017, 14(11), 1400; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph14111400 - 17 Nov 2017

Cited by 16 | Viewed by 4609

Abstract

This study examined antibiotic susceptibility, genetic diversity, and characteristics of virulence genes in Campylobacter isolates from poultry. Chicken (n = 152) and duck (n = 154) samples were collected from 18 wet markets in Korea. Campylobacter spp. isolated from the carcasses [...] Read more.

This study examined antibiotic susceptibility, genetic diversity, and characteristics of virulence genes in Campylobacter isolates from poultry. Chicken (n = 152) and duck (n = 154) samples were collected from 18 wet markets in Korea. Campylobacter spp. isolated from the carcasses were identified by PCR. The isolated colonies were analyzed for antibiotic susceptibility to chloramphenicol, amikacin, erythromycin, tetracycline, ciprofloxacin, nalidixic acid, and enrofloxacin. The isolates were also used to analyze genetic diversity using the DiversiLab^TM system and were tested for the presence of cytolethal distending toxin (cdt) genes. Campylobacter spp. were isolated from 45 poultry samples out of 306 poultry samples (14.7%) and the average levels of Campylobacter contamination were 22.0 CFU/g and 366.1 CFU/g in chicken and duck samples, respectively. Moreover, more than 90% of the isolates showed resistance to nalidixic acid and ciprofloxacin. Genetic correlation analysis showed greater than 95% similarity between 84.4% of the isolates, and three cdt genes (cdtA, cdtB, and cdtC) were present in 71.1% of Campylobacter isolates. These results indicate that Campylobacter contamination should be decreased to prevent and treat Campylobacter foodborne illness. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Antimicrobials and Antimicrobial Resistance in the Environment)

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Open AccessArticle

Plant Growth, Antibiotic Uptake, and Prevalence of Antibiotic Resistance in an Endophytic System of Pakchoi under Antibiotic Exposure

by Hao Zhang, Xunan Li, Qingxiang Yang, Linlin Sun, Xinxin Yang, Mingming Zhou, Rongzhen Deng and Linqian Bi

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2017, 14(11), 1336; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph14111336 - 3 Nov 2017

Cited by 88 | Viewed by 8088

Abstract

Antibiotic contamination in agroecosystems may cause serious problems, such as the proliferation of various antibiotic resistant bacteria and the spreading of antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs) in the environment or even to human beings. However, it is unclear whether environmental antibiotics, antibiotic resistant bacteria, [...] Read more.

Antibiotic contamination in agroecosystems may cause serious problems, such as the proliferation of various antibiotic resistant bacteria and the spreading of antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs) in the environment or even to human beings. However, it is unclear whether environmental antibiotics, antibiotic resistant bacteria, and ARGs can directly enter into, or occur in, the endophytic systems of plants exposed to pollutants. In this study, a hydroponic experiment exposing pakchoi (Brassica chinensis L.) to tetracycline, cephalexin, and sulfamethoxazole at 50% minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) levels and MIC levels, respectively, was conducted to explore plant growth, antibiotic uptake, and the development of antibiotic resistance in endophytic systems. The three antibiotics promoted pakchoi growth at 50% MIC values. Target antibiotics at concentrations ranging from 6.9 to 48.1 µg·kg⁻¹ were detected in the treated vegetables. Additionally, the rates of antibiotic-resistant endophytic bacteria to total cultivable endophytic bacteria significantly increased as the antibiotics accumulated in the plants. The detection and quantification of ARGs indicated that four types, tetX, bla_CTX-M, and sul1 and sul2, which correspond to tetracycline, cephalexin, and sulfamethoxazole resistance, respectively, were present in the pakchoi endophytic system and increased with the antibiotic concentrations. The results highlight a potential risk of the development and spread of antibiotic resistance in vegetable endophytic systems. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Antimicrobials and Antimicrobial Resistance in the Environment)

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Open AccessArticle

Tigecycline Resistant Klebsiella pneumoniae Isolated from Austrian River Water

by Alexander Hladicz, Clemens Kittinger and Gernot Zarfel

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2017, 14(10), 1169; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph14101169 - 3 Oct 2017

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 4947

Abstract

Abstract: Antibiotic-resistant bacteria are spreading worldwide in medical settings but also in the environment. These resistant bacteria illustrate a major health problem in our times, and last-line antibiotics such as tigecycline represent an ultimate therapy option. Reports on tigecycline non-susceptible Enterobacteriaceae are [...] Read more.

Abstract: Antibiotic-resistant bacteria are spreading worldwide in medical settings but also in the environment. These resistant bacteria illustrate a major health problem in our times, and last-line antibiotics such as tigecycline represent an ultimate therapy option. Reports on tigecycline non-susceptible Enterobacteriaceae are presented with regard to medical settings but are rare with that for the environment. The aim of this study was to characterize two tigecycline non-susceptible Klebsiella pneumoniae isolates from the river Mur, and to question the resistance mechanism. The screening for chromosomal mutations revealed a deletion and a silent point mutation in one isolate and a point mutation in the other isolate all within the ramR allele. RamR acts as repressor and prevents overexpression of ramA. These mutations are likely to cause a resistant phenotype due to the overexpression of AcrAB-TolC. MLST revealed that the isolates belonged to two unrelated MLST types (ST2392 and ST2394). Both isolates only revealed resistance to tigecycline and tetracycline. This is one of the rare reports of tigecycline-resistant Klebsiella pneumoniae from surface water. The presence of two genetically different isolates suggests that the river water may bear substances that favor mutations that can lead to this efflux pump-driven resistance. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Antimicrobials and Antimicrobial Resistance in the Environment)

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Open AccessArticle

Antimicrobial Susceptibility of Staphylococcus aureus Isolated from Recreational Waters and Beach Sand in Eastern Cape Province of South Africa

by Olufemi Emmanuel Akanbi, Henry Akum Njom, Justine Fri, Anthony C. Otigbu and Anna M. Clarke

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2017, 14(9), 1001; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph14091001 - 1 Sep 2017

Cited by 78 | Viewed by 11319

Abstract

Background: Resistance of Staphylococcus aureus to commonly used antibiotics is linked to their ability to acquire and disseminate antimicrobial-resistant determinants in nature, and the marine environment may serve as a reservoir for antibiotic-resistant bacteria. This study determined the antibiotic sensitivity profile of [...] Read more.

Background: Resistance of Staphylococcus aureus to commonly used antibiotics is linked to their ability to acquire and disseminate antimicrobial-resistant determinants in nature, and the marine environment may serve as a reservoir for antibiotic-resistant bacteria. This study determined the antibiotic sensitivity profile of S. aureus isolated from selected beach water and intertidal beach sand in the Eastern Cape Province of South Africa. Methods: Two hundred and forty-nine beach sand and water samples were obtained from 10 beaches from April 2015 to April 2016. Staphylococcus aureus was isolated from the samples using standard microbiological methods and subjected to susceptibility testing to 15 antibiotics. Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) was detected by susceptibility to oxacillin and growth on Brilliance MRSA II agar. Antibiotic resistance genes including mecA, femA rpoB, blaZ, ermB, ermA, ermC, vanA, vanB, tetK and tetM were screened. Results: Thirty isolates (12.3%) were positive for S. aureus by PCR with over 50% showing phenotypic resistance to methicillin. Resistance of S. aureus to antibiotics varied considerably with the highest resistance recorded to ampicillin and penicillin (96.7%), rifampicin and clindamycin (80%), oxacillin (73.3%) and erythromycin (70%). S. aureus revealed varying susceptibility to imipenem (96.7%), levofloxacin (86.7%), chloramphenicol (83.3%), cefoxitin (76.7%), ciprofloxacin (66.7%), gentamycin (63.3%), tetracycline and sulfamethoxazole-trimethoprim (56.7%), and vancomycin and doxycycline (50%). All 30 (100%) S. aureus isolates showed multiple antibiotic-resistant patterns (resistant to three or more antibiotics). The mecA, femA, rpoB, blaZ, ermB and tetM genes were detected in 5 (22.7%), 16 (53.3%), 11 (45.8%), 16 (55.2%), 15 (71.4%), and 8 (72.7%) isolates respectively; Conclusions: Results from this study indicate that beach water and sand from the Eastern Cape Province of South Africa may be potential reservoirs of antibiotic-resistant S. aureus which could be transmitted to exposed humans and animals. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Antimicrobials and Antimicrobial Resistance in the Environment)

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Open AccessArticle

Disinfection of the Water Borne Pathogens Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus by Solar Photocatalysis Using Sonochemically Synthesized Reusable Ag@ZnO Core-Shell Nanoparticles

by Sourav Das, Neha Ranjana, Ananyo Jyoti Misra, Mrutyunjay Suar, Amrita Mishra, Ashok J. Tamhankar, Cecilia Stålsby Lundborg and Suraj K. Tripathy

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2017, 14(7), 747; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph14070747 - 10 Jul 2017

Cited by 29 | Viewed by 6149

Abstract

Water borne pathogens present a threat to human health and their disinfection from water poses a challenge, prompting the search for newer methods and newer materials. Disinfection of the Gram-negative bacterium Escherichia coli and the Gram-positive coccal bacterium Staphylococcus aureus in an aqueous [...] Read more.

Water borne pathogens present a threat to human health and their disinfection from water poses a challenge, prompting the search for newer methods and newer materials. Disinfection of the Gram-negative bacterium Escherichia coli and the Gram-positive coccal bacterium Staphylococcus aureus in an aqueous matrix was achieved within 60 and 90 min, respectively, at 35 °C using solar-photocatalysis mediated by sonochemically synthesized Ag@ZnO core-shell nanoparticles. The efficiency of the process increased with the increase in temperature and at 55 °C the disinfection for the two bacteria could be achieved in 45 and 60 min, respectively. A new ultrasound-assisted chemical precipitation technique was used for the synthesis of Ag@ZnO core-shell nanoparticles. The characteristics of the synthesized material were established using physical techniques. The material remained stable even at 400 °C. Disinfection efficiency of the Ag@ZnO core-shell nanoparticles was confirmed in the case of real world samples of pond, river, municipal tap water and was found to be better than that of pure ZnO and TiO₂ (Degussa P25). When the nanoparticle- based catalyst was recycled and reused for subsequent disinfection experiments, its efficiency did not change remarkably, even after three cycles. The sonochemically synthesized Ag@ZnO core-shell nanoparticles thus have a good potential for application in solar photocatalytic disinfection of water borne pathogens. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Antimicrobials and Antimicrobial Resistance in the Environment)

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Open AccessArticle

Antibiotic Resistance and Antibiotic Resistance Genes in Escherichia coli Isolates from Hospital Wastewater in Vietnam

by La Thi Quynh Lien, Pham Thi Lan, Nguyen Thi Kim Chuc, Nguyen Quynh Hoa, Pham Hong Nhung, Nguyen Thi Minh Thoa, Vishal Diwan, Ashok J. Tamhankar and Cecilia Stålsby Lundborg

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2017, 14(7), 699; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph14070699 - 29 Jun 2017

Cited by 58 | Viewed by 8159

Abstract

The environmental spread of antibiotic-resistant bacteria has been recognised as a growing public health threat for which hospitals play a significant role. The aims of this study were to investigate the prevalence of antibiotic resistance and antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs) in Escherichia coli [...] Read more.

The environmental spread of antibiotic-resistant bacteria has been recognised as a growing public health threat for which hospitals play a significant role. The aims of this study were to investigate the prevalence of antibiotic resistance and antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs) in Escherichia coli isolates from hospital wastewater in Vietnam. Wastewater samples before and after treatment were collected using continuous sampling every month over a year. Standard disk diffusion and E-test were used for antibiotic susceptibility testing. Extended-spectrum beta-lactamase (ESBL) production was tested using combined disk diffusion. ARGs were detected by polymerase chain reactions. Resistance to at least one antibiotic was detected in 83% of isolates; multidrug resistance was found in 32%. The highest resistance prevalence was found for co-trimoxazole (70%) and the lowest for imipenem (1%). Forty-three percent of isolates were ESBL-producing, with the bla_TEM gene being more common than bla_CTX-M. Co-harbouring of the bla_CTX-M, bla_TEM and qepA genes was found in 46% of isolates resistant to ciprofloxacin. The large presence of antibiotic-resistant E. coli isolates combined with ARGs in hospital wastewater, even post-treatment, poses a threat to public health. It highlights the need to develop effective processes for hospital wastewater treatment plants to eliminate antibiotic resistant bacteria and ARGs. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Antimicrobials and Antimicrobial Resistance in the Environment)

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Open AccessArticle

Antibiotic Resistance in an Indian Rural Community: A ‘One-Health’ Observational Study on Commensal Coliform from Humans, Animals, and Water

by Manju Raj Purohit, Salesh Chandran, Harshada Shah, Vishal Diwan, Ashok J. Tamhankar and Cecilia Stålsby Lundborg

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2017, 14(4), 386; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph14040386 - 6 Apr 2017

Cited by 62 | Viewed by 11450

Abstract

Antibiotic-resistant bacteria are an escalating grim menace to global public health. Our aim is to phenotype and genotype antibiotic-resistant commensal Escherichia coli (E. coli) from humans, animals, and water from the same community with a ‘one-health’ approach. The samples were collected from a [...] Read more.

Antibiotic-resistant bacteria are an escalating grim menace to global public health. Our aim is to phenotype and genotype antibiotic-resistant commensal Escherichia coli (E. coli) from humans, animals, and water from the same community with a ‘one-health’ approach. The samples were collected from a village belonging to demographic surveillance site of Ruxmaniben Deepchand (R.D.) Gardi Medical College Ujjain, Central India. Commensal coliforms from stool samples from children aged 1–3 years and their environment (animals, drinking water from children's households, common source- and waste-water) were studied for antibiotic susceptibility and plasmid-encoded resistance genes. E. coli isolates from human (n = 127), animal (n = 21), waste- (n = 12), source- (n = 10), and household drinking water (n = 122) carried 70%, 29%, 41%, 30%, and 30% multi-drug resistance, respectively. Extended spectrum beta-lactamase (ESBL) producers were 57% in human and 23% in environmental isolates. Co-resistance was frequent in penicillin, cephalosporin, and quinolone. Antibiotic-resistance genes bla_CTX-M-9 and qnrS were most frequent. Group D-type isolates with resistance genes were mainly from humans and wastewater. Colistin resistance, or the mcr-1 gene, was not detected. The frequency of resistance, co-resistance, and resistant genes are high and similar in coliforms from humans and their environment. This emphasizes the need to mitigate antibiotic resistance with a ‘one-health’ approach. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Antimicrobials and Antimicrobial Resistance in the Environment)

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