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Phytohormones: Important Participators in Plant Growth and Development

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A special issue of International Journal of Molecular Sciences (ISSN 1422-0067). This special issue belongs to the section "Molecular Plant Sciences".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (30 June 2023) | Viewed by 31246

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Prof. Dr. Guzel Kudoyarova

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Laboratory of Plant Physiology, Ufa Institute of Biology of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Ufa 450054, Russia
Interests: plant productivity; phytohormones; plant growth promoting bacteria; bacterial metabolites; plant-microorganism interaction
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Dear Colleagues,

Phytohormones are involved in the regulation of numerous processes in plants. However, their participation in the control of plant growth and development has attracted the most attention. Recently, wonderful discoveries have been made regarding the mechanisms of hormonal synthesis, perception of hormonal signals, and participants involved in transduction and implementation of their signals at the levels of gene expression and hormonal crosstalk with other regulatory systems. Nevertheless, a lot of questions concerning the participation of plant hormones in the control of growth and development remain unanswered. Therefore, we invite researchers to contribute to this Special Issue, which will present the latest research findings reported in original experimental papers, opinions, and reviews regarding hormonal control of growth and development on the cell and organ levels during germination, cell division, extension and differentiation, root and shoot branching, flowering, and fruit ripening. The list of regulators called phytohormones was expanded by adding brassinosteroids, jasmonates, and salicylic acid to “classical” hormones: auxins, cytokinins, gibberellins, ethylene, and abscisic acid. Although jasmonates and salicylic acid are better known as “stress hormones”, there are reports on their capacity to influence plants’ growth, and publications on this topic are welcome.

Prof. Dr. Guzel Kudoyarova
Guest Editor

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Keywords

growth and development
brassinosteroids
jasmonates
salicylic
auxins
cytokinins
gibberellins
ethylene
abscisic acid
hormonal cross-talk
transcription factors
secondary messengers (ROS, Ca, NO)

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Published Papers (12 papers)

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Editorial

Jump to: Research, Review

6 pages, 223 KiB

Open AccessEditorial

Special Issue “Phytohormones: Important Participators in Plant Growth and Development”

by Guzel Kudoyarova

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2024, 25(3), 1380; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms25031380 - 23 Jan 2024

Viewed by 1185

Abstract

The articles published in the IJMS Special Issue “Phytohormones” are devoted to various aspects of hormonal control of plant growth and development promoting adaptation to normal and stress conditions [...] Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Phytohormones: Important Participators in Plant Growth and Development)

Research

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24 pages, 3634 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Regulatory Effects of ABA and GA on the Expression of Conglutin Genes and LAFL Network Genes in Yellow Lupine (Lupinus luteus L.) Seeds

by Natalia Klajn, Katarzyna Kapczyńska, Paweł Pasikowski, Paulina Glazińska, Hubert Kugiel, Jacek Kęsy and Waldemar Wojciechowski

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2023, 24(15), 12380; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms241512380 - 3 Aug 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1496

Abstract

The maturation of seeds is a process of particular importance both for the plant itself by assuring the survival of the species and for the human population for nutritional and economic reasons. Controlling this process requires a strict coordination of many factors at different levels of the functioning of genetic and hormonal changes as well as cellular organization. One of the most important examples is the transcriptional activity of the LAFL gene regulatory network, which includes LEAFY COTYLEDON1 (LEC1) and LEC1-LIKE (L1L) and ABSCISIC ACID INSENSITIVE3 (ABI3), FUSCA3 (FUS3), and LEC2 (LEAFY COTYLEDON2), as well as hormonal homeostasis–of abscisic acid (ABA) and gibberellins (GA) in particular. From the nutritional point of view, the key to seed development is the ability of seeds to accumulate large amounts of proteins with different structures and properties. The world’s food deficit is mainly related to shortages of protein, and taking into consideration the environmental changes occurring on Earth, it is becoming necessary to search for a way to obtain large amounts of plant-derived protein while maintaining the diversity of its origin. Yellow lupin, whose storage proteins are conglutins, is one of the plant species native to Europe that accumulates large amounts of this nutrient in its seeds. In this article we have shown the key changes occurring in the developing seeds of the yellow-lupin cultivar Taper by means of modern molecular biology techniques, including RNA-seq, chromatographic techniques and quantitative PCR analysis. We identified regulatory genes fundamental to the seed-filling process, as well as genes encoding conglutins. We also investigated how exogenous application of ABA and GA₃ affects the expression of LlLEC2, LlABI3, LlFUS3, and genes encoding β- and δ-conglutins and whether it results in the amount of accumulated seed storage proteins. The research shows that for each species, even related plants, very specific changes can be identified. Thus the analysis and possibility of using such an approach to improve and stabilize yields requires even more detailed and extended research. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Phytohormones: Important Participators in Plant Growth and Development)

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20 pages, 7514 KiB

Open AccessArticle

BSA-Seq and Transcriptomic Analysis Provide Candidate Genes Associated with Inflorescence Architecture and Kernel Orientation by Phytohormone Homeostasis in Maize

by Yang Wang, Yang Li, Wenjie Zhang, Yue Yang, Yuting Ma, Xinyang Li, Dexuan Meng, Haishan Luo, Wei Xue, Xiangling Lv, Fenghai Li, Wanli Du and Xiaolin Geng

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2023, 24(13), 10728; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms241310728 - 27 Jun 2023

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1863

Abstract

The developmental plasticity of the maize inflorescence depends on meristems, which directly affect reproductive potential and yield. However, the molecular roles of upper floral meristem (UFM) and lower floral meristem (LFM) in inflorescence and kernel development have not been fully elucidated. In this study, we characterized the reversed kernel1 (rk1) novel mutant, which contains kernels with giant embryos but shows normal vegetative growth like the wild type (WT). Total RNA was extracted from the inflorescence at three stages for transcriptomic analysis. A total of 250.16-Gb clean reads were generated, and 26,248 unigenes were assembled and annotated. Gene ontology analyses of differentially expressed genes (DEGs) detected in the sexual organ formation stage revealed that cell differentiation, organ development, phytohormonal responses and carbohydrate metabolism were enriched. The DEGs associated with the regulation of phytohormone levels and signaling were mainly expressed, including auxin (IAA), jasmonic acid (JA), gibberellins (GA), and abscisic acid (ABA). The transcriptome, hormone evaluation and immunohistochemistry observation revealed that phytohormone homeostasis were affected in rk1. BSA-Seq and transcriptomic analysis also provide candidate genes to regulate UFM and LFM development. These results provide novel insights for understanding the regulatory mechanism of UFM and LFM development in maize and other plants. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Phytohormones: Important Participators in Plant Growth and Development)

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15 pages, 4965 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effect of ipt Gene Induction in Transgenic Tobacco Plants on Hydraulic Conductance, Formation of Apoplastic Barriers and Aquaporin Activity under Heat Shock

by Lidiya Vysotskaya, Guzel Akhiyarova, Oksana Seldimirova, Tatiana Nuzhnaya, Ilshat Galin, Ruslan Ivanov and Guzel Kudoyarova

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2023, 24(12), 9860; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms24129860 - 7 Jun 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1252

Abstract

Cytokinins are known to keep stomata open, which supports gas exchange and correlates with increased photosynthesis. However, keeping the stomata open can be detrimental if the increased transpiration is not compensated for by water supply to the shoots. In this study, we traced the effect of ipt (isopentenyl transferase) gene induction, which increases the concentration of cytokinins in transgenic tobacco plants, on transpiration and hydraulic conductivity. Since water flow depends on the conductivity of the apoplast, the deposition of lignin and suberin in the apoplast was studied by staining with berberine. The effect of an increased concentration of cytokinins on the flow of water through aquaporins (AQPs) was revealed by inhibition of AQPs with HgCl₂. It was shown that an elevated concentration of cytokinins in ipt-transgenic plants increases hydraulic conductivity by enhancing the activity of aquaporins and reducing the formation of apoplastic barriers. The simultaneous effect of cytokinins on both stomatal and hydraulic conductivity makes it possible to coordinate the evaporation of water from leaves and its flow from roots to leaves, thereby maintaining the water balance and leaf hydration. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Phytohormones: Important Participators in Plant Growth and Development)

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14 pages, 1265 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Melatonin Treatments Reduce Chilling Injury and Delay Ripening, Leading to Maintenance of Quality in Cherimoya Fruit

by Jorge Medina-Santamarina, Fabián Guillén, Mihaela Iasmina Madalina Ilea, María Celeste Ruiz-Aracil, Daniel Valero, Salvador Castillo and María Serrano

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2023, 24(4), 3787; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms24043787 - 14 Feb 2023

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 2596

Abstract

Spain is the world’s leading producer of cherimoya, a climacteric fruit highly appreciated by consumers. However, this fruit species is very sensitive to chilling injury (CI), which limits its storage. In the present experiments, the effects of melatonin applied as dipping treatment on cherimoya fruit CI, postharvest ripening and quality properties were evaluated during storage at 7 °C + 2 days at 20 °C. The results showed that melatonin treatments (0.01, 0.05, 0.1 mM) delayed CI, ion leakage, chlorophyll losses and the increases in total phenolic content and hydrophilic and lipophilic antioxidant activities in cherimoya peel for 2 weeks with respect to controls. In addition, the increases in total soluble solids and titratable acidity in flesh tissue were also delayed in melatonin-treated fruit, and there was also reduced firmness loss compared with the control, the highest effects being found for the 0.05 mM dose. This treatment led to maintenance of fruit quality traits and to increases in the storage time up to 21 days, 14 days more than the control fruit. Thus, melatonin treatment, especially at 0.05 mM concentration, could be a useful tool to decrease CI damage in cherimoya fruit, with additional effects on retarding postharvest ripening and senescence processes and on maintaining quality parameters. These effects were attributed to a delay in the climacteric ethylene production, which was delayed for 1, 2 and 3 weeks for 0.01, 0.1 and 0.05 mM doses, respectively. However, the effects of melatonin on gene expression and the activity of the enzymes involved in ethylene production deserves further research. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Phytohormones: Important Participators in Plant Growth and Development)

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13 pages, 2220 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Cytokinin Modulates Responses to Phytomelatonin in Arabidopsis thaliana under High Light Stress

by Ivan A. Bychkov, Aleksandra A. Andreeva, Natalia V. Kudryakova and Victor V. Kusnetsov

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2023, 24(1), 738; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms24010738 - 1 Jan 2023

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 2150

Abstract

Fine-tuned interactions between melatonin (MT) and hormones affected by environmental inputs are crucial for plant growth. Under high light (HL) conditions, melatonin reduced photodamage in Arabidopsis thaliana and contributed to the restoration of the expression of the cytokinin (CK) synthesis genes IPT3, IPT5 and LOG7 and genes for CK signal transduction AHK2,3 and ARR 1, 4, 5 and 12 which were downregulated by stress. However, CK signaling mutants displayed no significant changes in the expression of CK genes following HL + MT treatment, implying that a fully functional cytokinin signaling pathway is a prerequisite for MT–CK interactions. In turn, cytokinin treatment increased the expression of the key melatonin synthesis gene ASMT under both moderate and HL in wild-type plants. This upregulation was further accentuated in the ipt3,5,7 mutant which is highly sensitive to CK. In this mutant, in addition to ASMT, the melatonin synthesis genes SNAT and COMT, as well as the putative signaling genes CAND2 and GPA1, displayed elevated transcript levels. The results of the study suggest that melatonin acts synergistically with CK to cope with HL stress through melatonin-associated activation or repression of the respective hormonal genes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Phytohormones: Important Participators in Plant Growth and Development)

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17 pages, 2704 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Transcriptome Analysis Revealing the Interaction of Abscisic Acid and Cell Wall Modifications during the Flower Opening and Closing Process of Nymphaea lotus

by Weijuan Zhou, Zhaoji Li, Wentao Wu, Xia Zhao, Enbo Wang, Jian Wang, Xiqiang Song and Ying Zhao

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2022, 23(23), 14524; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms232314524 - 22 Nov 2022

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1723

Abstract

As a tropical flower, Nymphaea lotus is a typical night-blooming waterlily used in water gardening. Its petals are rich in aromatic substances that can be used to extract essential oils and as flower tea. However, the short life of the flower seriously affects the development of its cut flowers. At present, neither the mechanism behind the night-opening waterlily flower’s opening and closing nor the difference between day-opening and night-opening waterlily flowers’ opening and closing mechanisms are clear. In this study, endogenous hormone contents of closed (CP) and open (OP) petals were measured, and transcriptome analysis of CP and OP petals was carried out to determine the signal transduction pathway and metabolic pathway that affect flower opening and closing. ABA and cell wall modification were selected as the most significant factors regulating flowering. We used qRT-PCR to identify the genes involved in the regulation of flower opening in waterlilies. Finally, by comparing the related pathways with those of the diurnal type, the obvious difference between them was found to be their hormonal regulation pathways. In conclusion, the endogenous ABA hormone may interact with the cell wall modification pathway to induce the flowering of N. lotus. Our data provide a new direction for the discovery of key factors regulating the flower opening and closing of N. lotus and provide basic theoretical guidance for future horticultural applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Phytohormones: Important Participators in Plant Growth and Development)

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13 pages, 2526 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Genome-Wide Identification and Characterization of YUCCA Gene Family in Mikania micrantha

by Weigui Luo, Nian Xiao, Feiyan Wu, Beixin Mo, Wenwen Kong and Yu Yu

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2022, 23(21), 13037; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms232113037 - 27 Oct 2022

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2113

Abstract

Auxin is a general coordinator for growth and development throughout plant lifespan, acting in a concentration-dependent manner. Tryptophan aminotransferases (YUCCA) family catalyze the oxidative decarboxylation of indole-3-pyruvic acid (IPA) to form indole-3-acetic acid (IAA) and plays a critical role in auxin homeostasis. Here, 18 YUCCA family genes divided into four categories were identified from Mikania micrantha (M. micrantha), one of the world’s most invasive plants. Five highly conserved motifs were characterized in these YUCCA genes (MmYUCs). Transcriptome analysis revealed that MmYUCs exhibited distinct expression patterns in different organs and five MmYUCs showed high expression levels throughout all the five tissues, implying that they may play dominant roles in auxin biosynthesis and plant development. In addition, MmYUC6_1 was overexpressed in DR5::GUS Arabidopsis line to explore its function, which resulted in remarkably increased auxin level and typical elevated auxin-related phenotypes including shortened roots and elongated hypocotyls in the transgenic plants, suggesting that MmYUC6_1 promoted IAA biosynthesis in Arabidopsis. Collectively, these findings provided comprehensive insight into the phylogenetic relationships, chromosomal distributions, expression patterns and functions of the MmYUC genes in M. micrantha, which would facilitate the study of molecular mechanisms underlying the fast growth of M. micrantha and preventing its invasion. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Phytohormones: Important Participators in Plant Growth and Development)

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16 pages, 3430 KiB

Open AccessArticle

CpMAX1a, a Cytochrome P450 Monooxygenase Gene of Chimonanthus praecox Regulates Shoot Branching in Arabidopsis

by Haiyuan Zhang, Run Hua, Xia Wang, Huafeng Wu, Hua Ou, Xin Lu, Yan Huang, Daofeng Liu and Shunzhao Sui

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2022, 23(18), 10888; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms231810888 - 17 Sep 2022

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2179

Abstract

Strigolactones (SLs) are a class of important hormones in the regulation of plant branching. In the model plant Arabidopsis, AtMAX1 encodes a cytochrome P450 protein and is a crucial gene in the strigolactone synthesis pathway. Yet, the regulatory mechanism of MAX1 in the shoot branching of wintersweet (Chimonanthus praecox) remains unclear. Here we identified and isolated three MAX1 homologous genes, namely CpMAX1a, CpMAX1b, and CpMAX1c. Quantitative real-time PCR (qRT-PCR) revealed the expression of CpMAX1a in all tissues, being highest in leaves, whereas CpMAX1b was only expressed in stems, while CpMAX1c was expressed in both roots and stem tips. However, CpMAX1a’s expression decreased significantly after decapitation; hence, we verified its gene function. CpMAX1a was located in Arabidopsis chloroplasts. Overexpressing CpMAX1a restored the phenotype of the branching mutant max1–3, and reduced the rosette branch number, but resulted in no significant phenotypic differences from the wild type. Additionally, expression of AtBRC1 was significantly upregulated in transgenic lines, indicating that the CpMAX1a gene has a function similar to the homologous gene of Arabidopsis. In conclusion, our study shows that CpMAX1a plays a conserved role in regulating the branch development of wintersweet. This work provides a molecular and theoretical basis for better understanding the branch development of wintersweet. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Phytohormones: Important Participators in Plant Growth and Development)

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Review

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24 pages, 1763 KiB

Open AccessReview

Integration of Electrical Signals and Phytohormones in the Control of Systemic Response

by Maria Ladeynova, Darya Kuznetsova, Maxim Mudrilov and Vladimir Vodeneev

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2023, 24(1), 847; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms24010847 - 3 Jan 2023

Cited by 15 | Viewed by 3149

Abstract

Plants are constantly exposed to environmental stresses. Local stimuli sensed by one part of a plant are translated into long-distance signals that can influence the activities in distant tissues. Changes in levels of phytohormones in distant parts of the plant occur in response to various local stimuli. The regulation of hormone levels can be mediated by long-distance electrical signals, which are also induced by local stimulation. We consider the crosstalk between electrical signals and phytohormones and identify interaction points, as well as provide insights into the integration nodes that involve changes in pH, Ca²⁺ and ROS levels. This review also provides an overview of our current knowledge of how electrical signals and hormones work together to induce a systemic response. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Phytohormones: Important Participators in Plant Growth and Development)

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16 pages, 802 KiB

Open AccessReview

Regulation of PIN-FORMED Protein Degradation

by Liuqin Zhang, Yifan Guo, Yujie Zhang, Yuxin Li, Yan Pei and Mi Zhang

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2023, 24(1), 843; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms24010843 - 3 Jan 2023

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 3522

Abstract

Auxin action largely depends on the establishment of auxin concentration gradient within plant organs, where PIN-formed (PIN) auxin transporter-mediated directional auxin movement plays an important role. Accumulating studies have revealed the need of polar plasma membrane (PM) localization of PIN proteins as well as regulation of PIN polarity in response to developmental cues and environmental stimuli, amongst which a typical example is regulation of PIN phosphorylation by AGCVIII protein kinases and type A regulatory subunits of PP2A phosphatases. Recent findings, however, highlight the importance of PIN degradation in reestablishing auxin gradient. Although the underlying mechanism is poorly understood, these findings provide a novel aspect to broaden the current knowledge on regulation of polar auxin transport. In this review, we summarize the current understanding on controlling PIN degradation by endosome-mediated vacuolar targeting, autophagy, ubiquitin modification and the related E3 ubiquitin ligases, cytoskeletons, plant hormones, environmental stimuli, and other regulators, and discuss the possible mechanisms according to recent studies. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Phytohormones: Important Participators in Plant Growth and Development)

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22 pages, 1374 KiB

Open AccessReview

Molecular Mechanisms of Diverse Auxin Responses during Plant Growth and Development

by Yang Zhang, Jiajie Yu, Xiuyue Xu, Ruiqi Wang, Yingying Liu, Shan Huang, Hairong Wei and Zhigang Wei

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2022, 23(20), 12495; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms232012495 - 18 Oct 2022

Cited by 20 | Viewed by 6813

Abstract

The plant hormone auxin acts as a signaling molecule to regulate numerous developmental processes throughout all stages of plant growth. Understanding how auxin regulates various physiological and developmental processes has been a hot topic and an intriguing field. Recent studies have unveiled more molecular details into how diverse auxin responses function in every aspect of plant growth and development. In this review, we systematically summarized and classified the molecular mechanisms of diverse auxin responses, and comprehensively elaborated the characteristics and multilevel regulation mechanisms of the canonical transcriptional auxin response. On this basis, we described the characteristics and differences between different auxin responses. We also presented some auxin response genes that have been genetically modified in plant species and how their changes impact various traits of interest. Finally, we summarized some important aspects and unsolved questions of auxin responses that need to be focused on or addressed in future research. This review will help to gain an overall understanding of and some insights into the diverse molecular mechanisms of auxin responses in plant growth and development that are instrumental in harnessing genetic resources in molecular breeding of extant plant species. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Phytohormones: Important Participators in Plant Growth and Development)

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