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18 pages, 46618 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Immunoexpression Pattern of Autophagy-Related Proteins in Human Congenital Anomalies of the Kidney and Urinary Tract

by Mirko Maglica, Nela Kelam, Ilija Perutina, Anita Racetin, Azer Rizikalo, Natalija Filipović, Ivana Kuzmić Prusac, Josip Mišković and Katarina Vukojević

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2024, 25(13), 6829; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms25136829 - 21 Jun 2024

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Abstract

The purpose of this study was to evaluate the spatiotemporal immunoexpression pattern of microtubule-associated protein 1 light chain 3 beta (LC3B), glucose-regulated protein 78 (GRP78), heat shock protein 70 (HSP70), and lysosomal-associated membrane protein 2A (LAMP2A) in normal human fetal kidney development (CTRL) [...] Read more.

The purpose of this study was to evaluate the spatiotemporal immunoexpression pattern of microtubule-associated protein 1 light chain 3 beta (LC3B), glucose-regulated protein 78 (GRP78), heat shock protein 70 (HSP70), and lysosomal-associated membrane protein 2A (LAMP2A) in normal human fetal kidney development (CTRL) and kidneys affected with congenital anomalies of the kidney and urinary tract (CAKUT). Human fetal kidneys (control, horseshoe, dysplastic, duplex, and hypoplastic) from the 18th to the 38th developmental week underwent epifluorescence microscopy analysis after being stained with antibodies. Immunoreactivity was quantified in various kidney structures, and expression dynamics were examined using linear and nonlinear regression modeling. The punctate expression of LC3B was observed mainly in tubules and glomerular cells, with dysplastic kidneys displaying distinct staining patterns. In the control group’s glomeruli, LAMP2A showed a sporadic, punctate signal; in contrast to other phenotypes, duplex kidneys showed significantly stronger expression in convoluted tubules. GRP78 had a weaker expression in CAKUT kidneys, especially hypoplastic ones, while normal kidneys exhibited punctate staining of convoluted tubules and glomeruli. HSP70 staining varied among phenotypes, with dysplastic and hypoplastic kidneys exhibiting stronger staining compared to controls. Expression dynamics varied among observed autophagy markers and phenotypes, indicating their potential roles in normal and dysfunctional kidney development. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Embryonic Development and Differentiation)

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12 pages, 470 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Galectin-13 and Laeverin Levels Interfere with Human Fetoplacental Growth

by Márió Vincze, János Sikovanyecz, Jr., Imre Földesi, Andrea Surányi, Szabolcs Várbíró, Gábor Németh, János Sikovanyecz and Zoltan Kozinszky

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2024, 25(12), 6347; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms25126347 - 8 Jun 2024

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Abstract

Galectin-13 (Gal-13) is predominantly produced by the syncytiotrophoblast, while laeverin is expressed on the outgrowing extravillous trophoblast, and both are thought to be biomarkers of preeclampsia. The aim of this study was to assess the correlation between concentrations of Gal-13 and laeverin measured [...] Read more.

Galectin-13 (Gal-13) is predominantly produced by the syncytiotrophoblast, while laeverin is expressed on the outgrowing extravillous trophoblast, and both are thought to be biomarkers of preeclampsia. The aim of this study was to assess the correlation between concentrations of Gal-13 and laeverin measured in maternal serum and amniotic fluid at 16–22 weeks of gestation and the sonographic assessment of the fetoplacental measurements. Fetal biometric data and placental volume and perfusion indices were measured in 62 singleton pregnancies. Serum and amniotic levels of Gal-13 and laeverin levels were measured using a sandwich ELISA. Both amniotic fluid and serum Gal-13 levels expressed a negative correlation to the plasma laeverin level in mid-pregnancy. Serum laeverin level correlated positively with the gestational length at delivery (β = 0.39, p < 0.05), while the amniotic laeverin level correlated well with the abdominal circumference of the fetus (β = 0.44, p < 0.05). Furthermore, laeverin level in the amnion correlated positively with the estimated fetal weight (β = 0.48, p < 0.05) and with the placental volume (β = 0.32, p < 0.05). Logistic regression analyses revealed that a higher circulating Gal-13 level represents a slightly significant risk factor (OR: 1.01) for hypertension-related diseases during pregnancy. It is a novelty that laeverin can be detected in the amniotic fluid, and amnion laeverin concentration represents a potential biomarker of fetoplacental growth. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Embryonic Development and Differentiation)

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18 pages, 28368 KiB

Open AccessArticle

miRNAs in Follicular and Oviductal Fluids Support Global DNA Demethylation in Early-Stage Embryos

by Sogo Aoki, Yuki Inoue, Mao Hamazaki, Shunsuke Hara, Tatsuo Noguchi, Koumei Shirasuna and Hisataka Iwata

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2024, 25(11), 5872; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms25115872 - 28 May 2024

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Abstract

Global methylation levels differ in in vitro- and in vivo-developed embryos. Follicular fluid (FF) contains extracellular vesicles (EVs) containing miRNAs that affect embryonic development. Here, we examined our hypothesis that components in FF affect global DNA methylation and embryonic development. Oocytes and FF [...] Read more.

Global methylation levels differ in in vitro- and in vivo-developed embryos. Follicular fluid (FF) contains extracellular vesicles (EVs) containing miRNAs that affect embryonic development. Here, we examined our hypothesis that components in FF affect global DNA methylation and embryonic development. Oocytes and FF were collected from bovine ovaries. Treatment of zygotes with a low concentration of FF induced global DNA demethylation, improved embryonic development, and reduced DNMT1/3A levels. We show that embryos take up EVs containing labeled miRNA secreted from granulosa cells and the treatment of zygotes with EVs derived from FF reduces global DNA methylation in embryos. Furthermore, the methylation levels of in vitro-developed blastocysts were higher than those of in their vivo counterparts. Based on small RNA-sequencing and in silico analysis, we predicted miR-29b, -199a-3p, and -148a to target DNMTs and to induce DNA demethylation, thereby improving embryonic development. Moreover, among FF from 30 cows, FF with a high content of these miRNAs demethylated more DNA in the embryos than FF with a lower miRNA content. Thus, miRNAs in FF play a role in early embryonic development. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Embryonic Development and Differentiation)

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24 pages, 11780 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Proteomic Analysis of Domestic Cat Blastocysts and Their Secretome Produced in an In Vitro Culture System without the Presence of the Zona Pellucida

by Daniel Veraguas-Dávila, Camila Zapata-Rojas, Constanza Aguilera, Darling Saéz-Ruiz, Fernando Saravia, Fidel Ovidio Castro and Lleretny Rodriguez-Alvarez

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2024, 25(8), 4343; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms25084343 - 14 Apr 2024

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Abstract

Domestic cat blastocysts cultured without the zona pellucida exhibit reduced implantation capacity. However, the protein expression profile has not been evaluated in these embryos. The objective of this study was to evaluate the protein expression profile of domestic cat blastocysts cultured without the [...] Read more.

Domestic cat blastocysts cultured without the zona pellucida exhibit reduced implantation capacity. However, the protein expression profile has not been evaluated in these embryos. The objective of this study was to evaluate the protein expression profile of domestic cat blastocysts cultured without the zona pellucida. Two experimental groups were generated: (1) domestic cat embryos generated by IVF and cultured in vitro (zona intact, (ZI)) and (2) domestic cat embryos cultured in vitro without the zona pellucida (zona-free (ZF group)). The cleavage, morula, and blastocyst rates were estimated at days 2, 5 and 7, respectively. Day 7 blastocysts and their culture media were subjected to liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry (LC–MS/MS). The UniProt Felis catus database was used to identify the standard proteome. No significant differences were found in the cleavage, morula, or blastocyst rates between the ZI and ZF groups (p > 0.05). Proteomic analysis revealed 22 upregulated and 20 downregulated proteins in the ZF blastocysts. Furthermore, 14 proteins involved in embryo development and implantation were present exclusively in the culture medium of the ZI blastocysts. In conclusion, embryo culture without the zona pellucida did not affect in vitro development, but altered the protein expression profile and release of domestic cat blastocysts. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Embryonic Development and Differentiation)

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24 pages, 3485 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Gene Expression Profiling Reveals Fundamental Sex-Specific Differences in SIRT3-Mediated Redox and Metabolic Signaling in Mouse Embryonic Fibroblasts

by Robert Belužić, Ena Šimunić, Iva I. Podgorski, Marija Pinterić, Marijana Popović Hadžija, Tihomir Balog and Sandra Sobočanec

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2024, 25(7), 3868; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms25073868 - 30 Mar 2024

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1046

Abstract

Sirt-3 is an important regulator of mitochondrial function and cellular energy homeostasis, whose function is associated with aging and various pathologies such as Alzheimer’s disease, Parkinson’s disease, cardiovascular diseases, and cancers. Many of these conditions show differences in incidence, onset, and progression between [...] Read more.

Sirt-3 is an important regulator of mitochondrial function and cellular energy homeostasis, whose function is associated with aging and various pathologies such as Alzheimer’s disease, Parkinson’s disease, cardiovascular diseases, and cancers. Many of these conditions show differences in incidence, onset, and progression between the sexes. In search of hormone-independent, sex-specific roles of Sirt-3, we performed mRNA sequencing in male and female Sirt-3 WT and KO mouse embryonic fibroblasts (MEFs). The aim of this study was to investigate the sex-specific cellular responses to the loss of Sirt-3. By comparing WT and KO MEF of both sexes, the differences in global gene expression patterns as well as in metabolic and stress responses associated with the loss of Sirt-3 have been elucidated. Significant differences in the activities of basal metabolic pathways were found both between genotypes and between sexes. In-depth pathway analysis of metabolic pathways revealed several important sex-specific phenomena. Male cells mount an adaptive Hif-1a response, shifting their metabolism toward glycolysis and energy production from fatty acids. Furthermore, the loss of Sirt-3 in male MEFs leads to mitochondrial and endoplasmic reticulum stress. Since Sirt-3 knock-out is permanent, male cells are forced to function in a state of persistent oxidative and metabolic stress. Female MEFs are able to at least partially compensate for the loss of Sirt-3 by a higher expression of antioxidant enzymes. The activation of neither Hif-1a, mitochondrial stress response, nor oxidative stress response was observed in female cells lacking Sirt-3. These findings emphasize the sex-specific role of Sirt-3, which should be considered in future research. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Embryonic Development and Differentiation)

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13 pages, 1650 KiB

Open AccessArticle

An Alternative Application of Magnetic-Activated Cell Sorting: CD45 and CD235a Based Purification of Semen and Testicular Tissue Samples

by Péter Czétány, András Balló, László Márk, Attila Török, Árpád Szántó and Gábor Máté

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2024, 25(7), 3627; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms25073627 - 24 Mar 2024

Viewed by 820

Abstract

Magnetic activated cell sorting (MACS) is a well-known sperm selection technique, which is able to remove apoptotic spermatozoa from semen samples using the classic annexinV based method. Leukocytes and erythrocytes in semen samples or in testicular tissue processed for in vitro fertilization (IVF) [...] Read more.

Magnetic activated cell sorting (MACS) is a well-known sperm selection technique, which is able to remove apoptotic spermatozoa from semen samples using the classic annexinV based method. Leukocytes and erythrocytes in semen samples or in testicular tissue processed for in vitro fertilization (IVF) could exert detrimental effects on sperm. In the current study, we rethought the aforementioned technique and used magnetic microbeads conjugated with anti-CD45/CD235a antibodies to eliminate contaminating leukocytes and erythrocytes from leukocytospermic semen samples and testicular tissue samples gained via testicular sperm extraction (TESE). With this technique, a 15.7- and a 30.8-fold reduction could be achieved in the ratio of leukocytes in semen and in the number of erythrocytes in TESE samples, respectively. Our results show that MACS is a method worth to reconsider, with more potential alternative applications. Investigations to find molecules labeling high-quality sperm population and the development of positive selection procedures based on these might be a direction of future research. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Embryonic Development and Differentiation)

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12 pages, 28045 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Molecular Mechanism of Body Axis Induction in Lampreys May Differ from That in Amphibians

by Galina V. Ermakova, Aleksandr V. Kucheryavyy, Andrey G. Zaraisky and Andrey V. Bayramov

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2024, 25(4), 2412; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms25042412 - 19 Feb 2024

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Abstract

Lamprey homologues of the classic embryonic inducer Noggin are similar in expression pattern and functional properties to Noggin homologues of jawed vertebrates. All noggin genes of vertebrates apparently originated from a single ancestral gene as a result of genome duplications. nogginA, nogginB [...] Read more.

Lamprey homologues of the classic embryonic inducer Noggin are similar in expression pattern and functional properties to Noggin homologues of jawed vertebrates. All noggin genes of vertebrates apparently originated from a single ancestral gene as a result of genome duplications. nogginA, nogginB and nogginC of lampreys, like noggin1 and noggin2 of gnathostomes, demonstrate the ability to induce complete secondary axes with forebrain and eye structures when overexpressed in Xenopus laevis embryos. According to current views, this finding indicates the ability of lamprey Noggin proteins to suppress the activity of the BMP, Nodal/Activin and Wnt/beta-catenin signaling pathways, as shown for Noggin proteins of gnathostomes. In this work, by analogy with experiments in Xenopus embryos, we attempted to induce secondary axes in the European river lamprey Lampetra fluviatilis by injecting noggin mRNAs into lamprey eggs in vivo. Surprisingly, unlike what occurs in amphibians, secondary axis induction in the lampreys either by noggin mRNAs or by chordin and cerberus mRNAs, the inductive properties of which have been described, was not observed. Only wnt8a mRNA demonstrated the ability to induce secondary axes in the lampreys. Such results may indicate that the mechanism of axial specification in lampreys, which represent jawless vertebrates, may differ in detail from that in the jawed clade. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Embryonic Development and Differentiation)

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17 pages, 8253 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Mechanical Tensions Regulate Gene Expression in the Xenopus laevis Axial Tissues

by Fedor M. Eroshkin, Elena A. Fefelova, Denis V. Bredov, Eugeny E. Orlov, Nataliya M. Kolyupanova, Alexander M. Mazur, Alexey S. Sokolov, Nadezhda A. Zhigalova, Egor B. Prokhortchouk, Alexey M. Nesterenko and Andrey G. Zaraisky

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2024, 25(2), 870; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms25020870 - 10 Jan 2024

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Abstract

During gastrulation and neurulation, the chordamesoderm and overlying neuroectoderm of vertebrate embryos converge under the control of a specific genetic programme to the dorsal midline, simultaneously extending along it. However, whether mechanical tensions resulting from these morphogenetic movements play a role in long-range [...] Read more.

During gastrulation and neurulation, the chordamesoderm and overlying neuroectoderm of vertebrate embryos converge under the control of a specific genetic programme to the dorsal midline, simultaneously extending along it. However, whether mechanical tensions resulting from these morphogenetic movements play a role in long-range feedback signaling that in turn regulates gene expression in the chordamesoderm and neuroectoderm is unclear. In the present work, by using a model of artificially stretched explants of Xenopus midgastrula embryos and full-transcriptome sequencing, we identified genes with altered expression in response to external mechanical stretching. Importantly, mechanically activated genes appeared to be expressed during normal development in the trunk, i.e., in the stretched region only. By contrast, genes inhibited by mechanical stretching were normally expressed in the anterior neuroectoderm, where mechanical stress is low. These results indicate that mechanical tensions may play the role of a long-range signaling factor that regulates patterning of the embryo, serving as a link coupling morphogenesis and cell differentiation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Embryonic Development and Differentiation)

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17 pages, 8974 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Porcine Kidney Organoids Derived from Naïve-like Embryonic Stem Cells

by Meishuang Li, Xiyun Guo, Linxin Cheng, Hong Zhang, Meng Zhou, Manling Zhang, Zhibao Yin, Tianxu Guo, Lihua Zhao, Han Liu, Xiubin Liang and Rongfeng Li

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2024, 25(1), 682; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms25010682 - 4 Jan 2024

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1806

Abstract

The scarcity of donor kidneys greatly impacts the survival of patients with end-stage renal failure. Pigs are increasingly becoming potential organ donors but are limited by immunological rejection. Based on the human kidney organoid already established with the CHIR99021 and FGF9 induction strategy, [...] Read more.

The scarcity of donor kidneys greatly impacts the survival of patients with end-stage renal failure. Pigs are increasingly becoming potential organ donors but are limited by immunological rejection. Based on the human kidney organoid already established with the CHIR99021 and FGF9 induction strategy, we generated porcine kidney organoids from porcine naïve-like ESCs (nESCs). The derived porcine organoids had a tubule-like constructure and matrix components. The porcine organoids expressed renal markers including AQP1 (proximal tubule), WT1 and PODO (podocyte), and CD31 (vascular endothelial cells). These results imply that the organoids had developed the majority of the renal cell types and structures, including glomeruli and proximal tubules. The porcine organoids were also identified to have a dextran absorptive function. Importantly, porcine organoids have a certain abundance of vascular endothelial cells, which are the basis for investigating immune rejection. The derived porcine organoids might serve as materials for immunosuppressor screening for xenotransplantation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Embryonic Development and Differentiation)

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14 pages, 2323 KiB

Open AccessArticle

In Vitro-Produced Equine Blastocysts Exhibit Greater Dispersal and Intermingling of Inner Cell Mass Cells than In Vivo Embryos

by Muhammad Umair, Veronica Flores da Cunha Scheeren, Mabel M. Beitsma, Silvia Colleoni, Cesare Galli, Giovanna Lazzari, Marta de Ruijter-Villani, Tom A. E. Stout and Anthony Claes

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2023, 24(11), 9619; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms24119619 - 1 Jun 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1605

Abstract

In vitro production (IVP) of equine embryos is increasingly popular in clinical practice but suffers from higher incidences of early embryonic loss and monozygotic twin development than transfer of in vivo derived (IVD) embryos. Early embryo development is classically characterized by two cell [...] Read more.

In vitro production (IVP) of equine embryos is increasingly popular in clinical practice but suffers from higher incidences of early embryonic loss and monozygotic twin development than transfer of in vivo derived (IVD) embryos. Early embryo development is classically characterized by two cell fate decisions: (1) first, trophectoderm (TE) cells differentiate from inner cell mass (ICM); (2) second, the ICM segregates into epiblast (EPI) and primitive endoderm (PE). This study examined the influence of embryo type (IVD versus IVP), developmental stage or speed, and culture environment (in vitro versus in vivo) on the expression of the cell lineage markers, CDX-2 (TE), SOX-2 (EPI) and GATA-6 (PE). The numbers and distribution of cells expressing the three lineage markers were evaluated in day 7 IVD early blastocysts (n = 3) and blastocysts (n = 3), and in IVP embryos first identified as blastocysts after 7 (fast development, n = 5) or 9 (slow development, n = 9) days. Furthermore, day 7 IVP blastocysts were examined after additional culture for 2 days either in vitro (n = 5) or in vivo (after transfer into recipient mares, n = 3). In IVD early blastocysts, SOX-2 positive cells were encircled by GATA-6 positive cells in the ICM, with SOX-2 co-expression in some presumed PE cells. In IVD blastocysts, SOX-2 expression was exclusive to the compacted presumptive EPI, while GATA-6 and CDX-2 expression were consistent with PE and TE specification, respectively. In IVP blastocysts, SOX-2 and GATA-6 positive cells were intermingled and relatively dispersed, and co-expression of SOX-2 or GATA-6 was evident in some CDX-2 positive TE cells. IVP blastocysts had lower TE and total cell numbers than IVD blastocysts and displayed larger mean inter-EPI cell distances; these features were more pronounced in slower-developing IVP blastocysts. Transferring IVP blastocysts into recipient mares led to the compaction of SOX-2 positive cells into a presumptive EPI, whereas extended in vitro culture did not. In conclusion, IVP equine embryos have a poorly compacted ICM with intermingled EPI and PE cells; features accentuated in slowly developing embryos but remedied by transfer to a recipient mare. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Embryonic Development and Differentiation)

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17 pages, 2262 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Cathepsin-L Secreted by High-Quality Bovine Embryos Exerts an Embryotrophic Effect In Vitro

by Annelies Raes, Eline Wydooghe, Krishna Chaitanya Pavani, Osvaldo Bogado Pascottini, Katleen Van Steendam, Maarten Dhaenens, Annekatrien Boel, Sonia Heras, Björn Heindryckx, Luc Peelman, Dieter Deforce, Filip Van Nieuwerburgh, Geert Opsomer, Ann Van Soom and Katrien Smits

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2023, 24(7), 6563; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms24076563 - 31 Mar 2023

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1566

Abstract

While human in vitro embryo production is generally performed individually, animal models have shown that culturing embryos in groups improves blastocyst yield and quality. Paracrine embryotrophins could be responsible for this improved embryo development, but their identity remains largely unknown. We hypothesize that [...] Read more.

While human in vitro embryo production is generally performed individually, animal models have shown that culturing embryos in groups improves blastocyst yield and quality. Paracrine embryotrophins could be responsible for this improved embryo development, but their identity remains largely unknown. We hypothesize that supplementation of embryotrophic proteins to a culture medium could be the key to improve individual embryo production. In this study, proteomics screening of culture media conditioned by bovine embryos revealed cathepsin-L as being secreted by both excellent- and good-quality embryos, while being absent in the medium conditioned by poor-quality embryos. The embryotrophic role of cathepsin-L was explored in vitro, whereby bovine zygotes were cultured individually for 8 days with or without cathepsin-L. Preliminary dose–response experiments pointed out 100 ng/mL as the optimal concentration of cathepsin-L in embryo culture medium. Supplementation of cathepsin-L to individual culture systems significantly improved blastocyst development and quality in terms of blastocoel formation at day 7, and the hatching ratio and apoptotic cell ratio at day 8, compared to the control. Taken together, cathepsin-L acts as an important embryotrophin by increasing embryo quality, and regulating blastulation and hatching in bovine in vitro embryo production. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Embryonic Development and Differentiation)

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Calcium and Neural Stem Cell Proliferation

by Dafne Astrid Díaz-Piña, Nayeli Rivera-Ramírez, Guadalupe García-López, Néstor Fabián Díaz and Anayansi Molina-Hernández

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2024, 25(7), 4073; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms25074073 - 6 Apr 2024

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Abstract

Intracellular calcium plays a pivotal role in central nervous system (CNS) development by regulating various processes such as cell proliferation, migration, differentiation, and maturation. However, understanding the involvement of calcium (Ca²⁺) in these processes during CNS development is challenging due to [...] Read more.

Intracellular calcium plays a pivotal role in central nervous system (CNS) development by regulating various processes such as cell proliferation, migration, differentiation, and maturation. However, understanding the involvement of calcium (Ca²⁺) in these processes during CNS development is challenging due to the dynamic nature of this cation and the evolving cell populations during development. While Ca²⁺ transient patterns have been observed in specific cell processes and molecules responsible for Ca²⁺ homeostasis have been identified in excitable and non-excitable cells, further research into Ca²⁺ dynamics and the underlying mechanisms in neural stem cells (NSCs) is required. This review focuses on molecules involved in Ca²⁺ entrance expressed in NSCs in vivo and in vitro, which are crucial for Ca²⁺ dynamics and signaling. It also discusses how these molecules might play a key role in balancing cell proliferation for self-renewal or promoting differentiation. These processes are finely regulated in a time-dependent manner throughout brain development, influenced by extrinsic and intrinsic factors that directly or indirectly modulate Ca²⁺ dynamics. Furthermore, this review addresses the potential implications of understanding Ca²⁺ dynamics in NSCs for treating neurological disorders. Despite significant progress in this field, unraveling the elements contributing to Ca²⁺ intracellular dynamics in cell proliferation remains a challenging puzzle that requires further investigation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Embryonic Development and Differentiation)

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