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Algal Cultivation for Obtaining High-Value Products, 2nd Edition

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A special issue of Marine Drugs (ISSN 1660-3397). This special issue belongs to the section "Marine Biotechnology Related to Drug Discovery or Production".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: 30 June 2026 | Viewed by 18201

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Dr. Cecilia Faraloni

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Institute of BioEconomy, National Research Council, 50019 Sesto Fiorentino, Italy
Interests: carotenoids; polyphenols; antioxidants; microalgae; plants; photosynthesis
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Dr. Eleftherios Touloupakis

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Guest Editor

Research Institute on Terrestrial Ecosystems, National Research Council, Via Madonna del Piano 10, 50019 Sesto Fiorentino, Italy
Interests: microalgae; photosynthesis; photobioreactor; fluorescence; immobilisation; photofermentation
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Following the success of the Special Issue entitled ‘Algal Cultivation for Obtaining High-Value Products’, we are delighted to announce the second edition on this publication.

Interest in the employment of high-value products from natural sources for application in human health, the food and cosmetics industries, and animal feed has increased significantly as consumers opt for natural ingredients and show concerns about the toxic effects of synthetic compounds.

Photosynthetic organisms have evolved to different strategies to survive under complex and extreme environmental conditions (high light, high salinity, extreme temperature, nutrient deficiency, or UV- radiation) by adapting their metabolism.

Various species of algae are capable of producing a large amount of secondary metabolites, such as carotenoids, polyphenols, and essential oils, which have a wide range of therapeutic properties due to their antioxidant activity. This peculiarity may depend mainly on the species, strains, genetic diversity, and/or abiotic stress. For this reason, numerous studies have been carried out to increase knowledge in this field and to optimize the recovery of natural antioxidant compounds under different growing conditions and with different stress factors. This Special Issue focuses on promoting algae capable of producing high-value products, as well as cultivation technologies, strategies, and growth conditions that will lead to the popularization of these compounds; techniques for the extraction and purification of these compounds and their potential applications will also be explored.

Dr. Cecilia Faraloni
Dr. Eleftherios Touloupakis
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 250 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for assessment.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Marine Drugs is an international peer-reviewed open access monthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2900 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

algae
photosynthesis
antioxidant
stress
carotenoids
polyphenols
physiology
high-value product
photobioreactor
biotechnology
fatty acids

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Algal Cultivation for Obtaining High-Value Products in Marine Drugs (11 articles)

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Research

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29 pages, 9999 KB

Open AccessArticle

Valorization of Ryegrass Hydrolysates Through Mixotrophic Cultivation of Desmodesmus subspicatus: Effects of Carbon and Nitrogen Sources on Biomass and Lipid Composition

by Ana Dobrinčić, Klara Komarec, Nenad Marđetko, Antonija Trontel, Mario Novak, Mladen Pavlečić, Vlatka Petravić Tominac and Božidar Šantek

Mar. Drugs 2026, 24(5), 149; https://doi.org/10.3390/md24050149 - 23 Apr 2026

Viewed by 418

Abstract

Lignocellulosic biomass represents an abundant and renewable carbon source, and its valorization through microalgal cultivation offers a sustainable route to resource-efficient bioprocessing. This study examined the effects of various carbon and nitrogen sources on the growth and lipid metabolism of Desmodesmus subspicatus, with a focus on ryegrass enzymatic hydrolysates as an alternative carbon source. Cultures were supplied with glucose, xylose, or arabinose at different concentrations, along with sodium nitrate or yeast extract, under different carbon-to-nitrogen ratios. Additionally, the impacts of alkaline- and acid-pretreated enzymatic ryegrass hydrolysates were evaluated. Growth was assessed by optical density and gravimetric analysis, and fatty acid profiles by gas chromatography. Glucose supplementation enhanced lipid accumulation, yielding fatty acid profiles dominated by C16 and C18 fatty acids, which are favorable for the quality of the produced biodiesel. Nitrogen limitation further promoted lipid accumulation; cultures supplied with sodium nitrate achieved higher total lipid content, while yeast extract favored greater proportions of PUFAs. Alkaline-pretreated ryegrass hydrolysate supported dose-dependent biomass formation reaching approximately 12 g L⁻¹ at 50%, whereas the acid-pretreated hydrolysate exhibited inhibitory effects at the same concentration. Scale-up in a 1 L photobioreactor yielded lower biomass but higher lipid content with a fatty acid profile shifted to SFA. These results support ryegrass as a viable alternative carbon source and highlight cultivation parameters that influence growth and lipid quality relevant for biofuel applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Algal Cultivation for Obtaining High-Value Products, 2nd Edition)

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51 pages, 2872 KB

Open AccessArticle

Cultivation of Limnospira platensis (Spirulina) in Full Seawater with Medium Recycling: A Promising Source of Protein and Phycocyanin for Arid Coastal Regions

by Monserrat Alemán, Marianna Venuleo, Juan Luis Gómez-Pinchetti, Eduardo Portillo and Flavio Guidi

Mar. Drugs 2026, 24(4), 141; https://doi.org/10.3390/md24040141 - 16 Apr 2026

Viewed by 498

Abstract

Protein and phycocyanin production is challenged by freshwater scarcity in arid coastal regions. This study assessed and optimized the cultivation of Limnospira platensis BEA 1257B in full seawater. Eight cultivation phases were conducted in 10,000 L raceways under a greenhouse to evaluate the effects of seawater content, nutrient availability, shading, CO₂ supply, and medium recycling on biomass productivity and biochemical composition. Freshwater, energy, and fertilizer savings, together with effluent characteristics of the optimized full-seawater recirculation strategy (SWR), were evaluated against a conventional freshwater cultivation process. Lower productivity was associated with high salinity and irradiance. Under long-term optimized conditions (615 days), the strain achieved stable productivities of 4.1 ± 1.4 gDW m⁻² day⁻¹ (14.8 ± 5.0 tDW ha⁻¹ year⁻¹). Increasing salinity promoted carbohydrate accumulation in the biomass (26.0% AFWD), while protein (64.4%) and C-phycocyanin (9.9%) moderately decreased. Nevertheless, protein quality, phycocyanin, and essential fatty acids remained high. Spray-dried biomass exhibited nutritionally relevant contents of K, Mg, Ca, Fe, and Mn, and complied with international food safety standards. SWR reduced energy demand by 10.5% and freshwater consumption by 12% on a surface basis, although these advantages were partially offset when expressed per unit of product, while clearly supporting environmentally sustainable and regulatory-compliant Limnospira production. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Algal Cultivation for Obtaining High-Value Products, 2nd Edition)

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22 pages, 1436 KB

Open AccessArticle

Synergistic Effects of Light and Salinity on Carotenoid and Biomass Composition of Synechocystis PCC6803 Cultures

by Cecilia Faraloni, Gergely Erno Lakatos, Francesco Balestra, Anna Pugliese, Graziella Chini Zittelli, Bernardo Cicchi, Eleftherios Touloupakis and Giuseppe Torzillo

Mar. Drugs 2026, 24(2), 83; https://doi.org/10.3390/md24020083 - 19 Feb 2026

Viewed by 873

Abstract

Light and salt stress affect the growth of plants and microorganisms, causing photo-oxidative stress. The cyanobacterium Synechocystis is notable for its adaptability to and sustainability in seawater. In this study, the synergistic effects of different light intensities and salt concentrations on the growth and biomass composition of Synechocystis were examined. Cultures were grown in BG11 medium (control) and with 20 and 40 g L⁻¹ marine salts (obtained from a commercial sea water preparation) at 100, 200, and 400 μmoles photons m⁻² s⁻¹ (LL, ML, and HL, respectively) to assess the interactive effects of salinity stress and increasing light intensity. The effect of salinity stress was most pronounced under LL and ML, where the highest accumulation of all major carotenoids was observed; under HL, the contents of most carotenoids significantly increased mainly at the highest salt concentration but to a lesser extent). Under LL and ML echinenone reached the highest values (2.71-fold and 3.75-fold higher than in the control, respectively), whereas β-carotene showed the highest increase at LL, reaching concentrations three times those of the control. At HL myxoxanthophyll exhibited the highest increase with marine salt (1.9-fold higher than in the control). The results show that Synechocystis could grow at all light intensities and marine salt concentrations via increased synthesis of carotenoids in response to physiological stress. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Algal Cultivation for Obtaining High-Value Products, 2nd Edition)

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22 pages, 2989 KB

Open AccessArticle

Photoautotrophic Batch Cultivation of Limnospira (Spirulina) platensis: Optimizing Biomass Productivity and Bioactive Compound Synthesis Through Salinity and pH Modulation

by Matteo Rizzoli, Giovanni Antonio Lutzu, Luca Usai, Giacomo Fais, Debora Dessì, Robinson Soto-Ramirez, Bartolomeo Cosenza and Alessandro Concas

Mar. Drugs 2025, 23(7), 281; https://doi.org/10.3390/md23070281 - 5 Jul 2025

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2606

Abstract

This study investigates the effects of salinity and pH modulation on the growth, biochemical composition, and bioactive compound production of Limnospira platensis under photoautotrophic batch cultivation. Cultures were grown in cylindrical photobioreactors using modified Jourdan medium, with controlled variations in NaCl concentrations (0.2–10 g L⁻¹) and pH levels (9–11) to simulate moderate environmental stress. Maximum biomass productivity (1.596 g L⁻¹) was achieved at pH 11 with 10 g L⁻¹ NaCl, indicating that L. platensis can tolerate elevated stress conditions. Phycocyanin (PC) content peaked at 9.54 g 100 g⁻¹ dry weight (DW) at pH 10 and 5 g L⁻¹ NaCl, triple the value at pH 9, highlighting optimal physiological conditions for pigment synthesis. Protein fraction dominated biomass composition (40–60%), while total lipid content increased significantly under high pH and salinity. Polyphenol content reached 19.5 mg gallic acid equivalents (GAE) gDW⁻¹ at pH 10 with 0.2 g L⁻¹ NaCl, correlating with the highest antioxidant activity (Trolox equivalent antioxidant capacity). These findings underscore the potential of L. platensis as a valuable source of proteins, pigments, and antioxidants, and emphasize the utility of moderate environmental stress in enhancing biomass quality, defined by protein, pigment, and antioxidant enrichment. While this study focused on physiological responses, future research will apply omics approaches to elucidate stress-response mechanisms. This study provides insights into optimizing cultivation strategies for large-scale production exploitable in food, pharmaceutical, and bio-based industries. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Algal Cultivation for Obtaining High-Value Products, 2nd Edition)

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15 pages, 823 KB

Open AccessArticle

Research on the Influence of Orthogonal Design Optimized Elicitor Combinations on Fucoxanthin Accumulation in Phaeodactylum tricornutum and Its Expression Regulation

by Han Yang, Yifu Gong, Boyue Liu, Yuru Chen, Huan Qin, Heyu Wang and Hao Liu

Mar. Drugs 2025, 23(6), 244; https://doi.org/10.3390/md23060244 - 9 Jun 2025

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1300

Abstract

Fucoxanthin, a carotenoid with notable pharmaceutical potential, has attracted significant attention due to its efficient accumulation in marine microalgae and the importance of optimizing its induction conditions. In this study, Phaeodactylum tricornutum was employed as a model organism to screen optimal conditions for fucoxanthin accumulation using a three-factor, four-level orthogonal design. Furthermore, the underlying mechanisms related to photosynthetic physiology and gene regulation were explored. The results revealed that both glycine (Gly) and light intensity significantly enhanced fucoxanthin content (p < 0.05). The optimal condition (Combination C: 0.50 g L⁻¹ Gly, 36 μmol photons·m⁻²·s⁻¹, 12 h light/12 h dark) yielded a fucoxanthin content of 0.87 μg g⁻¹, representing a 35% increase compared to the control. Meanwhile, Combination p (0.50 g L⁻¹ Gly, 36 μmol photons·m⁻²·s⁻¹, 24 h light/0 h dark) significantly improved cell density (5.11 × 10⁶ cells mL⁻¹; +18%) and fucoxanthin yield (4.10 μg L⁻¹; +47%). Analysis of photosynthetic parameters demonstrated that the non-photochemical quenching coefficient (NPQ) was suppressed. Gene expression profiling showed that Combination C upregulated photosynthetic genes (psbA, rbcL, rbcS) by up to 2.36-fold, while Combination P notably upregulated fcpb (7.59-fold), crtiso, and pds. Principal component analysis identified that rbcS and pds are key regulatory genes. These findings demonstrate that Gly, light intensity, and photoperiod synergistically regulate the expression of genes involved in photosynthesis and carotenoid biosynthesis, thereby promoting fucoxanthin accumulation. This work provides valuable insights and a theoretical basis for optimizing fucoxanthin production in support of marine drug development. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Algal Cultivation for Obtaining High-Value Products, 2nd Edition)

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13 pages, 1074 KB

Open AccessArticle

Stage-Specific Effects of TiO₂, ZnO, and CuO Nanoparticles on Green Microalga Haematococcus lacustris: Biomass and Astaxanthin Biosynthesis

by Ludmila Rudi, Tatiana Chiriac, Liliana Cepoi, Svetlana Djur and Ana Valuta

Mar. Drugs 2025, 23(5), 204; https://doi.org/10.3390/md23050204 - 11 May 2025

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1473

Abstract

Evaluating the effects of nanoparticles on biomass growth and astaxanthin accumulation in Haematococcus lacustris is crucial for optimizing the production of astaxanthin, a valuable carotenoid with numerous industrial applications. Identifying the life stages at which these nanoparticles exert stimulatory or toxic effects will aid in formulating effective production strategies. This study investigated the effects of titanium dioxide (TiO₂), zinc oxide (ZnO), and copper oxide (CuO) nanoparticles on biomass growth, astaxanthin biosynthesis, and lipid accumulation in Haematococcus lacustris, with a focus on their stage-specific impact throughout the algal life cycle. The nanoparticles were added at the start of cultivation, and the microalgal cultures developed continuously in their presence. Sampling for biochemical analyses was performed at distinct life stages (green motile, palmella, and aplanospore), enabling the assessment of stage-dependent responses. TiO₂NPs significantly stimulated biomass accumulation during the green motile stage. In the palmella stage, astaxanthin levels decreased in the presence of all nanoparticles, likely due to the absence of a stress signal required to activate pigment biosynthesis, despite ongoing biomass growth. In contrast, the aplanospore stage exhibited reactivation of astaxanthin biosynthesis and increased lipid accumulation, particularly under TiO₂NPs. Astaxanthin content increased by 21.57%. This study highlights that TiO₂, ZnO, and CuO nanoparticles modulate growth and astaxanthin biosynthesis in Haematococcus lacustris in a life cycle-dependent manner. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Algal Cultivation for Obtaining High-Value Products, 2nd Edition)

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18 pages, 1384 KB

Open AccessArticle

Exploring Phaeodactylum tricornutum for Nutraceuticals: Cultivation Techniques and Neurotoxin Risk Assessment

by Tobias Ebbing, Lena Kopp, Konstantin Frick, Tabea Simon, Berit Würtz, Jens Pfannstiel, Ulrike Schmid-Staiger, Stephan C. Bischoff and Günter E. M. Tovar

Mar. Drugs 2025, 23(2), 58; https://doi.org/10.3390/md23020058 - 26 Jan 2025

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 4266

Abstract

This study investigates the potential of the diatom Phaeodactylum tricornutum (PT) as a sustainable and nutritionally valuable food source, focusing on its ability to produce bioactive compounds such as eicosapentaenoic acid, fucoxanthin, chrysolaminarin (CRY) and proteins. PT was cultivated in a flat-plate airlift photobioreactor (FPA-PBR) illuminated with LEDs from two sides. The study aimed to monitor and minimize β-methylamino-L-alanine (BMAA) levels to address safety concerns. The data showed that the selected FPA-PBR setup was superior in biomass and EPA productivity, and CRY production was reduced. No BMAA was detected in any biomass sample during cultivation. By adjusting the cultivation conditions, PT biomass with different compositional profiles could be produced, enabling various applications in the food and health industries. Biomass from nutrient-repleted conditions is rich in EPA and Fx, with nutritional and health benefits. Biomass from nutrient-depleted conditions accumulated CRY, which can be used as dietary fiber. These results highlight the potential of PT as a versatile ingredient for human consumption and the effectiveness of FPA-PBRs with artificial lighting in producing high-quality biomass. This study also provides the basis for future research to optimize photobioreactor conditions to increase production efficiency and to tailor the biomass profiles of PT for targeted health-promoting applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Algal Cultivation for Obtaining High-Value Products, 2nd Edition)

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Review

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15 pages, 1976 KB

Open AccessReview

CRISPR-Cas Technology Turns Chlamydomonas reinhardtii into a Flagship for Algal Biotechnology

by Amina Antonacci, Annalisa Masi, Vincenzo Vedi, Sara Colella, Federica Musella, Gabriella Fiorentino and Viviana Scognamiglio

Mar. Drugs 2026, 24(1), 1; https://doi.org/10.3390/md24010001 - 19 Dec 2025

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1471

Abstract

Microalgae represent some of the most promising eukaryotic platforms in biotechnology due to their rapid growth, simple cultivation requirements, reliance on sunlight as a primary energy source, and ability to synthesize high-value bioactive compounds. These characteristics have made microalgae attractive candidates in various fields, including biofuel production, carbon capture, and pharmaceutical development. However, several technical limitations have limited their large-scale use as sustainable biofactories. A paradigm shift is currently occurring thanks to the genetic manipulation of microalgae, driven by CRISPR-Cas technology. Significant progress has been made in the model species Chlamydomonas reinhardtii, particularly in the targeted and efficient insertion of foreign DNA. Despite this progress, key challenges remain, and further optimization of CRISPR-Cas methodologies is needed to fully unleash the genetic potential of this organism. This review provides an overview of the convergence of CRISPR-Cas technologies in microalgae research, highlighting their impact on genetic studies, metabolic engineering, and industrial applications. It summarizes recent advances in microalgal genome editing through CRISPR systems, outlines current technical challenges, and highlights future directions for improving the implementation of this innovative technology in microalgal biotechnology. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Algal Cultivation for Obtaining High-Value Products, 2nd Edition)

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13 pages, 2258 KB

Open AccessReview

Enhancing CO₂ Fixation in Microalgal Systems: Mechanistic Insights and Bioreactor Strategies

by Zhongliang Sun, Chenmei Bo, Shuonan Cao and Liqin Sun

Mar. Drugs 2025, 23(3), 113; https://doi.org/10.3390/md23030113 - 7 Mar 2025

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 4285

Abstract

Microalgae are small, single-celled, or simple multicellular organisms that contain Chlorophyll a, allowing them to efficiently convert CO₂ and water into organic matter through photosynthesis. They are valuable in producing a range of products such as biofuels, food, pharmaceuticals, and cosmetics, making them economically and environmentally significant. Currently, CO₂ is delivered to microalgae cultivation systems mainly through aeration with CO₂-enriched gases. However, this method demonstrates limited CO₂ absorption efficiency (13–20%), which reduces carbon utilization effectiveness and significantly increases carbon-source expenditure. To overcome these challenges, innovative CO₂ supplementation technologies have been introduced, raising CO₂ utilization rates to over 50%, accelerating microalgae growth, and reducing cultivation costs. This review first categorizes CO₂ supplementation technologies used in photobioreactor systems, focusing on different mechanisms for enhancing CO₂ mass transfer. It then evaluates the effectiveness of these technologies and explores their potential for scaling up. Among these strategies, membrane-based CO₂ delivery systems and the incorporation of CO₂ absorption enhancers have shown the highest efficiency in boosting CO₂ mass transfer and microalgae productivity. Future efforts should focus on integrating these methods into large-scale photobioreactor systems to optimize cost-effective, sustainable production. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Algal Cultivation for Obtaining High-Value Products, 2nd Edition)

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