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Marine Drugs
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Algal Cultivation for Obtaining High-Value Products
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Algal Cultivation for Obtaining High-Value Products

A special issue of Marine Drugs (ISSN 1660-3397). This special issue belongs to the section "Marine Biotechnology Related to Drug Discovery or Production".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: 30 November 2024 | Viewed by 15756

Special Issue Editors

Dr. Cecilia Faraloni

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Institute of BioEconomy, IBE, National Research Council, Rome, Italy
Interests: carotenoids; polyphenols; antioxidants; microalgae; plants; photosynthesis
Dr. Eleftherios Touloupakis

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Research Institute on Terrestrial Ecosystems, National Research Council, Via Madonna del Piano 10, 50019 Sesto Fiorentino, FI, Italy
Interests: microalgae; photosynthesis; photobioreactor; fluorescence; immobilisation; photofermentation
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Interest in the employment of High-Value Products from natural sources for application in human health, the food and cosmetics industry, and animal feed has increased significantly as consumers opt for natural ingredients and show concerns about the toxic effects of synthetic compounds.

Photosynthetic organisms have evolved different strategies to survive under complex and extreme environmental conditions (high light, high salinity, extreme temperature, nutrient deficiency, UV- radiation) by adapting their metabolism. 

Various species of algae are capable of producing a large amount of secondary metabolites such as carotenoids, polyphenols and essential oils, which have a wide range of therapeutic properties, due to their antioxidant activity. This peculiarity may depend mainly on the species, strains, genetic diversity and/or abiotic stress. For this reason, numerous studies have been carried out to increase knowledge in this field and to optimize the recovery of natural antioxidant compounds under different growing conditions and with different stress factors. This Special Issue focuses on promoting algae capable of producing High-Value Products, as well as cultivation technologies, strategies and growth conditions that will lead to the popularization of these compounds; techniques for the extraction and purification of these compounds and their potential applications will also be explored.

Dr. Cecilia Faraloni
Dr. Eleftherios Touloupakis
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

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Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Marine Drugs is an international peer-reviewed open access monthly journal published by MDPI.

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Keywords

  • algae
  • photosynthesis
  • antioxidant
  • stress
  • carotenoids
  • polyphenols
  • physiology
  • high-value
  • photobioreactor
  • biotechnology

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Published Papers (10 papers)

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Research

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18 pages, 1810 KiB  
Article
Mixotrophic Cultivation of Arthrospira platensis (Spirulina) under Salt Stress: Effect on Biomass Composition, FAME Profile and Phycocyanin Content
by Nicola Pio Russo, Marika Ballotta, Luca Usai, Serenella Torre, Maurizio Giordano, Giacomo Fais, Mattia Casula, Debora Dessì, Paola Nieri, Eya Damergi, Giovanni Antonio Lutzu and Alessandro Concas
Mar. Drugs 2024, 22(9), 381; https://doi.org/10.3390/md22090381 - 24 Aug 2024
Viewed by 1321
Abstract
Arthrospira platensis holds promise for biotechnological applications due to its rapid growth and ability to produce valuable bioactive compounds like phycocyanin (PC). This study explores the impact of salinity and brewery wastewater (BWW) on the mixotrophic cultivation of A. platensis. Utilizing BWW [...] Read more.
Arthrospira platensis holds promise for biotechnological applications due to its rapid growth and ability to produce valuable bioactive compounds like phycocyanin (PC). This study explores the impact of salinity and brewery wastewater (BWW) on the mixotrophic cultivation of A. platensis. Utilizing BWW as an organic carbon source and seawater (SW) for salt stress, we aim to optimize PC production and biomass composition. Under mixotrophic conditions with 2% BWW and SW, A. platensis showed enhanced biomass productivity, reaching a maximum of 3.70 g L−1 and significant increases in PC concentration. This study also observed changes in biochemical composition, with elevated protein and carbohydrate levels under salt stress that mimics the use of seawater. Mixotrophic cultivation with BWW and SW also influenced the FAME profile, enhancing the content of C16:0 and C18:1 FAMES. The purity (EP of 1.15) and yield (100 mg g−1) of PC were notably higher in mixotrophic cultures, indicating the potential for commercial applications in food, cosmetics, and pharmaceuticals. This research underscores the benefits of integrating the use of saline water with waste valorization in microalgae cultivation, promoting sustainability and economic efficiency in biotechnological processes. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Algal Cultivation for Obtaining High-Value Products)
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21 pages, 11710 KiB  
Article
Enhanced Production of High-Value Porphyrin Compound Heme by Metabolic Engineering Modification and Mixotrophic Cultivation of Synechocystis sp. PCC6803
by Kai Cao, Fengjie Sun, Zechen Xin, Yujiao Cao, Xiangyu Zhu, Huan Tian, Tong Cao, Jinju Ma, Weidong Mu, Jiankun Sun, Runlong Zhou, Zhengquan Gao and Chunxiao Meng
Mar. Drugs 2024, 22(9), 378; https://doi.org/10.3390/md22090378 - 23 Aug 2024
Viewed by 519
Abstract
Heme, as an essential cofactor and source of iron for cells, holds great promise in various areas, e.g., food and medicine. In this study, the model cyanobacteria Synechocystis sp. PCC6803 was used as a host for heme synthesis. The heme synthesis pathway and [...] Read more.
Heme, as an essential cofactor and source of iron for cells, holds great promise in various areas, e.g., food and medicine. In this study, the model cyanobacteria Synechocystis sp. PCC6803 was used as a host for heme synthesis. The heme synthesis pathway and its competitive pathway were modified to obtain an engineered cyanobacteria with high heme production, and the total heme production of Synechocystis sp. PCC6803 was further enhanced by the optimization of the culture conditions and the enhancement of mixotrophic ability. The co-expression of hemC, hemF, hemH, and the knockout of pcyA, a key gene in the heme catabolic pathway, resulted in a 3.83-fold increase in the heme production of the wild type, while the knockout of chlH, a gene encoding a Mg-chelatase subunit and the key enzyme of the chlorophyll synthesis pathway, resulted in a 7.96-fold increase in the heme production of the wild type; further increased to 2.05 mg/L, its heme production was 10.25-fold that of the wild type under optimized mixotrophic culture conditions. Synechocystis sp. PCC6803 has shown great potential as a cell factory for photosynthetic carbon sequestration for heme production. This study provides novel engineering targets and research directions for constructing microbial cell factories for efficient heme production. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Algal Cultivation for Obtaining High-Value Products)
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16 pages, 2509 KiB  
Article
Comparative Transcriptomic Analysis on the Effect of Sesamol on the Two-Stages Fermentation of Aurantiochytrium sp. for Enhancing DHA Accumulation
by Xuewei Yang, Liyang Wei, Shitong Liang, Zongkang Wang and Shuangfei Li
Mar. Drugs 2024, 22(8), 371; https://doi.org/10.3390/md22080371 - 16 Aug 2024
Viewed by 671
Abstract
Aurantiochytrium is a well-known long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) producer, especially docosahexaenoic acid (DHA). In order to reduce the cost or improve the productivity of DHA, many researchers are focusing on exploring the high-yield strain, reducing production costs, changing culture conditions, and other [...] Read more.
Aurantiochytrium is a well-known long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) producer, especially docosahexaenoic acid (DHA). In order to reduce the cost or improve the productivity of DHA, many researchers are focusing on exploring the high-yield strain, reducing production costs, changing culture conditions, and other measures. In this study, DHA production was improved by a two-stage fermentation. In the first stage, efficient and cheap soybean powder was used instead of conventional peptone, and the optimization of fermentation conditions (optimal fermentation conditions: temperature 28.7 °C, salinity 10.7‰, nitrogen source concentration 1.01 g/L, and two-nitrogen ratio of yeast extract to soybean powder 2:1) based on response surface methodology resulted in a 1.68-fold increase in biomass concentration. In the second stage, the addition of 2.5 mM sesamol increased the production of fatty acid and DHA by 93.49% and 98.22%, respectively, as compared to the optimal culture condition with unadded sesamol. Transcriptome analyses revealed that the addition of sesamol resulted in the upregulation of some genes related to fatty acid synthesis and antioxidant enzymes in Aurantiochytrium. This research provides a low-cost and effective culture method for the commercial production of DHA by Aurantiochytrium sp. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Algal Cultivation for Obtaining High-Value Products)
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19 pages, 2260 KiB  
Article
Production of Fucoxanthin from Microalgae Isochrysis galbana of Djibouti: Optimization, Correlation with Antioxidant Potential, and Bioinformatics Approaches
by Fatouma Mohamed Abdoul-Latif, Ayoub Ainane, Laila Achenani, Ali Merito Ali, Houda Mohamed, Ahmad Ali, Pannaga Pavan Jutur and Tarik Ainane
Mar. Drugs 2024, 22(8), 358; https://doi.org/10.3390/md22080358 - 6 Aug 2024
Viewed by 866
Abstract
Fucoxanthin, a carotenoid with remarkable antioxidant properties, has considerable potential for high-value biotechnological applications in the pharmaceutical, nutraceutical, and cosmeceutical fields. However, conventional extraction methods of this molecule from microalgae are limited in terms of cost-effectiveness. This study focused on optimizing biomass and [...] Read more.
Fucoxanthin, a carotenoid with remarkable antioxidant properties, has considerable potential for high-value biotechnological applications in the pharmaceutical, nutraceutical, and cosmeceutical fields. However, conventional extraction methods of this molecule from microalgae are limited in terms of cost-effectiveness. This study focused on optimizing biomass and fucoxanthin production from Isochrysis galbana, isolated from the coast of Tadjoura (Djibouti), by testing various culture media. The antioxidant potential of the cultures was evaluated based on the concentrations of fucoxanthin, carotenoids, and total phenols. Different nutrient formulations were tested to determine the optimal combination for a maximum biomass yield. Using the statistical methodology of principal component analysis, Walne and Guillard F/2 media were identified as the most promising, reaching a maximum fucoxanthin yield of 7.8 mg/g. Multiple regression models showed a strong correlation between antioxidant activity and the concentration of fucoxanthin produced. A thorough study of the optimization of I. galbana growth conditions, using a design of experiments, revealed that air flow rate and CO2 flow rate were the most influential factors on fucoxanthin production, reaching a value of 13.4 mg/g. Finally, to validate the antioxidant potential of fucoxanthin, an in silico analysis based on molecular docking was performed, showing that fucoxanthin interacts with antioxidant proteins (3FS1, 3L2C, and 8BBK). This research not only confirmed the positive results of I. galbana cultivation in terms of antioxidant activity, but also provided essential information for the optimization of fucoxanthin production, opening up promising prospects for industrial applications and future research. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Algal Cultivation for Obtaining High-Value Products)
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13 pages, 3126 KiB  
Article
Light Intensity Enhances the Lutein Production in Chromochloris zofingiensis Mutant LUT-4
by Qiaohong Chen, Mingmeng Liu, Wujuan Mi, Dong Wan, Gaofei Song, Weichao Huang and Yonghong Bi
Mar. Drugs 2024, 22(7), 306; https://doi.org/10.3390/md22070306 - 29 Jun 2024
Viewed by 922
Abstract
Chromochloris zofingiensis, a unicellular green alga, is a potential source of natural carotenoids. In this study, the mutant LUT-4 was acquired from the chemical mutagenesis pool of C. zofingiensis strain. The biomass yield and lutein content of LUT-4 reached 9.23 g·L−1 [...] Read more.
Chromochloris zofingiensis, a unicellular green alga, is a potential source of natural carotenoids. In this study, the mutant LUT-4 was acquired from the chemical mutagenesis pool of C. zofingiensis strain. The biomass yield and lutein content of LUT-4 reached 9.23 g·L−1, and 0.209% of dry weight (DW) on Day 3, which was 49.4%, and 33% higher than that of wild-type (WT), respectively. The biomass yields of LUT-4 under 100, 300, and 500 µmol/m2/s reached 8.4 g·L−1, 7.75 g·L−1, and 6.6 g·L−1, which was 10.4%, 21%, and 29.6% lower compared with the control, respectively. Under mixotrophic conditions, the lutein yields were significantly higher than that obtained in the control. The light intensity of 300 µmol/m2/s was optimal for lutein biosynthesis and the content of lutein reached 0.294% of DW on Day 3, which was 40.7% more than that of the control. When LUT-4 was grown under 300 µmol/m2/s, a significant increase in expression of genes implicated in lutein biosynthesis, including phytoene synthase (PSY), phytoene desaturase (PDS), and lycopene epsilon cyclase (LCYe) was observed. The changes in biochemical composition, Ace-CoA, pyruvate, isopentenyl pyrophosphate (IPP), and geranylgeranyl diphosphate (GGPP) contents during lutein biosynthesis were caused by utilization of organic carbon. It was thereby concluded that 300 µmol/m2/s was the optimal culture light intensity for the mutant LUT-4 to synthesize lutein. The results would be helpful for the large-scale production of lutein. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Algal Cultivation for Obtaining High-Value Products)
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18 pages, 4695 KiB  
Article
Maximizing Polysaccharides and Phycoerythrin in Porphyridium purpureum via the Addition of Exogenous Compounds: A Response-Surface-Methodology Approach
by Sanjiong Yi, Ai-Hua Zhang, Jianke Huang, Ting Yao, Bo Feng, Xinghu Zhou, Yadong Hu and Mingxuan Pan
Mar. Drugs 2024, 22(3), 138; https://doi.org/10.3390/md22030138 - 21 Mar 2024
Viewed by 1555
Abstract
Phycoerythrin and polysaccharides have significant commercial value in medicine, cosmetics, and food industries due to their excellent bioactive functions. To maximize the production of biomass, phycoerythrin, and polysaccharides in Porphyridium purpureum, culture media were supplemented with calcium gluconate (CG), magnesium gluconate (MG) [...] Read more.
Phycoerythrin and polysaccharides have significant commercial value in medicine, cosmetics, and food industries due to their excellent bioactive functions. To maximize the production of biomass, phycoerythrin, and polysaccharides in Porphyridium purpureum, culture media were supplemented with calcium gluconate (CG), magnesium gluconate (MG) and polypeptides (BT), and their optimal amounts were determined using the response surface methodology (RSM) based on three single-factor experiments. The optimal concentrations of CG, MG, and BT were determined to be 4, 12, and 2 g L−1, respectively. The RSM-based models indicated that biomass and phycoerythrin production were significantly affected only by MG and BT, respectively. However, polysaccharide production was significantly affected by the interactions between CG and BT and those between MG and BT, with no significant effect from BT alone. Using the optimized culture conditions, the maximum biomass (5.97 g L−1), phycoerythrin (102.95 mg L−1), and polysaccharide (1.42 g L−1) concentrations met and even surpassed the model-predicted maximums. After optimization, biomass, phycoerythrin, and polysaccharides concentrations increased by 132.3%, 27.97%, and 136.67%, respectively, compared to the control. Overall, this study establishes a strong foundation for the highly efficient production of phycoerythrin and polysaccharides using P. purpureum. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Algal Cultivation for Obtaining High-Value Products)
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10 pages, 5717 KiB  
Article
Effect of Iron Concentration on the Co-Production of Fucoxanthin and Fatty Acids in Conticribra weissflogii
by Ke Peng, David Kwame Amenorfenyo, Xiangyu Rui, Xianghu Huang, Changling Li and Feng Li
Mar. Drugs 2024, 22(3), 106; https://doi.org/10.3390/md22030106 - 24 Feb 2024
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1416
Abstract
The production of fucoxanthin and fatty acids in Conticribra weissflogii has been examined, but there is still a lack of understanding regarding the impact of trace elements, including iron, on their co-production. To address this knowledge gap, this study investigated the effects of [...] Read more.
The production of fucoxanthin and fatty acids in Conticribra weissflogii has been examined, but there is still a lack of understanding regarding the impact of trace elements, including iron, on their co-production. To address this knowledge gap, this study investigated the effects of FeCl3·6H2O on the growth, fucoxanthin, and fatty acids of C. weissflogii. The findings revealed that the highest cell density (1.9 × 106 cells mL−1), cell dry weight (0.89 ± 0.15 g L−1), and total fatty acid concentration (83,318.13 µg g−1) were achieved at an iron concentration of 15.75 mg L−1, while the maximum carotenoid and fucoxanthin contents were obtained at an iron concentration of 3.15 mg L−1. The study demonstrated that the content of the active substance in C. weissflogii could be increased by adjusting the iron concentration, providing new information as to the more efficient co-production of fucoxanthin and fatty acids and offering experimental support for large-scale production. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Algal Cultivation for Obtaining High-Value Products)
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19 pages, 2746 KiB  
Article
Description and Characterization of the Odontella aurita OAOSH22, a Marine Diatom Rich in Eicosapentaenoic Acid and Fucoxanthin, Isolated from Osan Harbor, Korea
by Sung Min An, Kichul Cho, Eun Song Kim, Hyunji Ki, Grace Choi and Nam Seon Kang
Mar. Drugs 2023, 21(11), 563; https://doi.org/10.3390/md21110563 - 27 Oct 2023
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2462
Abstract
Third-generation biomass production utilizing microalgae exhibits sustainable and environmentally friendly attributes, along with significant potential as a source of physiologically active compounds. However, the process of screening and localizing strains that are capable of producing high-value-added substances necessitates a significant amount of effort. [...] Read more.
Third-generation biomass production utilizing microalgae exhibits sustainable and environmentally friendly attributes, along with significant potential as a source of physiologically active compounds. However, the process of screening and localizing strains that are capable of producing high-value-added substances necessitates a significant amount of effort. In the present study, we have successfully isolated the indigenous marine diatom Odontella aurita OAOSH22 from the east coast of Korea. Afterwards, comprehensive analysis was conducted on its morphological, molecular, and biochemical characteristics. In addition, a series of experiments was conducted to analyze the effects of various environmental factors that should be considered during cultivation, such as water temperature, salinity, irradiance, and nutrients (particularly nitrate, silicate, phosphate, and iron). The morphological characteristics of the isolate were observed using optical and electron microscopes, and it exhibited features typical of O. aurita. Additionally, the molecular phylogenetic inference derived from the sequence of the small-subunit 18S rDNA confirmed the classification of the microalgal strain as O. aurita. This isolate has been confirmed to contain 7.1 mg g−1 dry cell weight (DCW) of fucoxanthin, a powerful antioxidant substance. In addition, this isolate contains 11.1 mg g−1 DCW of eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), which is one of the nutritionally essential polyunsaturated fatty acids. Therefore, this indigenous isolate exhibits significant potential as a valuable source of bioactive substances for various bio-industrial applications. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Algal Cultivation for Obtaining High-Value Products)
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15 pages, 2360 KiB  
Article
Scenedesmus rubescens Heterotrophic Production Strategies for Added Value Biomass
by Gonçalo Espírito Santo, Ana Barros, Margarida Costa, Hugo Pereira, Mafalda Trovão, Helena Cardoso, Bernardo Carvalho, Maria Soares, Nádia Correia, Joana T. Silva, Marília Mateus and Joana L. Silva
Mar. Drugs 2023, 21(7), 411; https://doi.org/10.3390/md21070411 - 19 Jul 2023
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2573
Abstract
Microalgae attract interest worldwide due to their potential for several applications. Scenedesmus is one of the first in vitro cultured algae due to their rapid growth and handling easiness. Within this genus, cells exhibit a highly resistant wall and propagate both auto- and [...] Read more.
Microalgae attract interest worldwide due to their potential for several applications. Scenedesmus is one of the first in vitro cultured algae due to their rapid growth and handling easiness. Within this genus, cells exhibit a highly resistant wall and propagate both auto- and heterotrophically. The main goal of the present work is to find scalable ways to produce a highly concentrated biomass of Scenedesmus rubescens in heterotrophic conditions. Scenedesmus rubescens growth was improved at the lab-scale by 3.2-fold (from 4.1 to 13 g/L of dry weight) through medium optimization by response surface methodology. Afterwards, scale-up was evaluated in 7 L stirred-tank reactor under fed-batch operation. Then, the optimized medium resulted in an overall productivity of 8.63 g/L/day and a maximum biomass concentration of 69.5 g/L. S. rubescens protein content achieved approximately 31% of dry weight, similar to the protein content of Chlorella vulgaris in heterotrophy. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Algal Cultivation for Obtaining High-Value Products)
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Review

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24 pages, 927 KiB  
Review
Genetic Engineering and Innovative Cultivation Strategies for Enhancing the Lutein Production in Microalgae
by Bert Coleman, Elke Vereecke, Katrijn Van Laere, Lucie Novoveska and Johan Robbens
Mar. Drugs 2024, 22(8), 329; https://doi.org/10.3390/md22080329 - 23 Jul 2024
Viewed by 2524
Abstract
Carotenoids, with their diverse biological activities and potential pharmaceutical applications, have garnered significant attention as essential nutraceuticals. Microalgae, as natural producers of these bioactive compounds, offer a promising avenue for sustainable and cost-effective carotenoid production. Despite the ability to cultivate microalgae for its [...] Read more.
Carotenoids, with their diverse biological activities and potential pharmaceutical applications, have garnered significant attention as essential nutraceuticals. Microalgae, as natural producers of these bioactive compounds, offer a promising avenue for sustainable and cost-effective carotenoid production. Despite the ability to cultivate microalgae for its high-value carotenoids with health benefits, only astaxanthin and β-carotene are produced on a commercial scale by Haematococcus pluvialis and Dunaliella salina, respectively. This review explores recent advancements in genetic engineering and cultivation strategies to enhance the production of lutein by microalgae. Techniques such as random mutagenesis, genetic engineering, including CRISPR technology and multi-omics approaches, are discussed in detail for their impact on improving lutein production. Innovative cultivation strategies are compared, highlighting their advantages and challenges. The paper concludes by identifying future research directions, challenges, and proposing strategies for the continued advancement of cost-effective and genetically engineered microalgal carotenoids for pharmaceutical applications. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Algal Cultivation for Obtaining High-Value Products)
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