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Microstructural and Mechanical Properties Investigation of Alloy Prepared by Additive Manufacturing Technology

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A special issue of Materials (ISSN 1996-1944). This special issue belongs to the section "Manufacturing Processes and Systems".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: 15 December 2024 | Viewed by 33017

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Dr. Krzysztof Grzelak

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Guest Editor

Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Military University and Technology, 2 Kaliskiego Street, 00-908 Warsaw, Poland
Interests: laser beam welding; hybrid laser arc welding; additive manufacturing; mechanical behavior of materials
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Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Additive Manufacturing (AM) technologies are a modern advanced manufacturing process which, together with the achievements of material engineering, enables the production of innovative products with high-performance and functional parameters.

The successful use of Additive Manufacturing technologies allows for significant flexibility in the product design process, allowing for a solution with properties that are difficult to achieve using conventional manufacturing techniques. Moreover, an additional advantage is the flexibility of the production itself, especially in the case of the customized or small batch production.

However, the performance properties of additively manufactured parts are affected by a lot of different parameters and still are the main topic of research papers. The main scope of this Special Issue is to gather scientific expertise from all fields covering mainly mechanical properties and structural analysis of additively manufactured elements. The Special Issue is dedicated to a wide range of applications, including mechanical engineering, biomedical engineering, civil engineering, materials engineering, manufacturing, nanotechnology, tribology, etc.

Dr. Krzysztof Grzelak
Guest Editor

Mr. Jakub Łuszczek
Guest Editor Assistant
Affiliation: Institute of Robots & Machine Design, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Military University of Technology, 2 Gen. S. Kaliskiego St., 00-908 Warsaw 49, Poland
Research Interest: additive manufacturing; rapid prototyping; gear transmissions; power transmission system; mechanical materials; mechanical design; machining, electromachining, mechanical testing

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Keywords

additive manufacturing (AM)
selective laser melting (SLM)
selective laser sintering (SLS)
laser metal deposition technology (LMD)
fused filament fabrication (FFF/FDM)
wire arc additive manufacturing (WAAM)
mechanical properties
high geometrical complexity
topological optimization

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Published Papers (10 papers)

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Research

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22 pages, 10809 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Preheating Influence on the Precipitation Microstructure, Mechanical and Corrosive Properties of Additively Built Al–Cu–Li Alloy Contrasted with Conventional (T83) Alloy

by Frank Adjei-Kyeremeh, Yudha Pratesa, Xiao Shen, Wenwen Song, Iris Raffeis, Uwe Vroomen, Daniela Zander and Andreas Bührig-Polaczek

Materials 2023, 16(14), 4916; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma16144916 - 10 Jul 2023

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1574

Abstract

In this paper, the high strength and lightweight Al–Cu–Li alloy (AA2099) is considered in as-built and preheated conditions (440 °C, 460 °C, 480 °C, 500 °C, and 520 °C). The purpose of this study is to investigate the influence of laser powder bed fusion (LPBF) in situ preheating on precipitation microstructure, mechanical and corrosive properties of LPBF-printed AA2099 alloy compared to the conventionally processed and heat-treated (T83) alloy. It is shown that precipitations evolve with increasing preheating temperatures from predominantly globular Cu-rich phases at lower temperatures (as-built, 440 °C) to more plate and rod-like precipitates (460 °C, 480 °C, 500 °C and 520 °C). Attendant increase with increasing preheating temperatures are the amount of low melting Cu-rich phases and precipitation-free zones (PFZ). Hardness of preheated LPBF samples peaks at 480 °C (93.6 HV0.1), and declines afterwards, although inferior to the T83 alloy (168.6 HV0.1). Preheated sample (500 °C) shows superior elongation (14.1%) compared to the T83 (11.3%) but falls short in tensile and yield strength properties. Potentiodynamic polarization results also show that increasing preheating temperature increases the corrosion current density (Icorr) and corrosion rate. Indicated by the lower oxide resistance (R_ox), the Cu-rich phases compromise the integrity of the oxide layer. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Microstructural and Mechanical Properties Investigation of Alloy Prepared by Additive Manufacturing Technology)

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10 pages, 10203 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Microstructure and Solute Segregation around the Melt-Pool Boundary of Orientation-Controlled 316L Austenitic Stainless Steel Produced by Laser Powder Bed Fusion

by Kazuhisa Sato, Shunya Takagi, Satoshi Ichikawa, Takuya Ishimoto and Takayoshi Nakano

Materials 2023, 16(1), 218; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma16010218 - 26 Dec 2022

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 2549

Abstract

For this article, we studied the microstructure and solute segregation seen around the melt pool boundary of orientation-controlled 316L austenitic stainless steel produced by laser powder bed fusion, using transmission electron microscopy and energy-dispersive x-ray spectroscopy. We found that the solidification cellular microstructures could be visualized with the aid of solute segregation (Cr and Mo) during solidification. Mn–Si–O inclusions (10–15 nm in diameter) were distributed along the lamellar boundaries, as well as in the dislocation cell walls. It is believed that the grain growth of the inclusions can be effectively suppressed by rapid quenching during the laser powder-bed fusion process. A thin region without cellular microstructures was observed at the melt-pool boundary. The cellular spacing widened near the bottom of the melt-pool boundary, owing to the decrease in the cooling rate. Atomic-structure analysis at the lamellar boundary by high-resolution transmission electron microscopy revealed a local interfacial structure, which is complementary to the results of electron back-scatter diffraction. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Microstructural and Mechanical Properties Investigation of Alloy Prepared by Additive Manufacturing Technology)

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15 pages, 17728 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Wear Analysis of Additively Manufactured Slipper-Retainer in the Axial Piston Pump

by Agnieszka Klimek, Janusz Kluczyński, Jakub Łuszczek, Adam Bartnicki, Krzysztof Grzelak and Marcin Małek

Materials 2022, 15(6), 1995; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15061995 - 8 Mar 2022

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2476

Abstract

Additive manufacturing (AM) of spare parts is going to become more and more common. In the case of hydraulic solutions, there are also some applications of AM technology related to topological optimization, anti-cavitation improvements, etc. An examination of all available research results shows that authors are using specialized tools and machines to properly prepare AM spare parts. The main aim of this paper is to analyze the influence of quick repair of the damaged slipper-retainer from an axial piston pump by using an AM spare part. Hence, it was prepared with a 100-h test campaign of the AM spare part, which covers the time between damage and supply of the new pump. The material of the slipper-retainer has been identified and replaced by another material—available as a powder for AM, with similar properties as the original. The obtained spare part had been subjected to sandblasting only to simulate extremely rough conditions, directly after the AM process and an analysis of the influence of the high surface roughness of AM part on wear measurements. The whole test campaign has been divided into nine stages. After each stage, microscopic measurements of the pump parts’ surface roughness were made. To determine roughness with proper measurements, a microscopical investigation was conducted. The final results revealed that it is possible to replace parts in hydraulic pumps with the use of AM. The whole test campaign caused a significant increase in the surface roughness of the pump’s original parts, which was worked with the AM spare slipper-retainer: (1) from Ra = 0.54 µm to Ra = 3.84 µm in the case of two tested pistons; (2) from Ra = 0.33 µm to Ra = 1.98 µm in the case of the slipper-retainer. Despite significant increases in the surface roughness of the pump’s parts, the whole test campaign has been successfully finished without any damages to the other important parts of the whole hydraulic test rig. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Microstructural and Mechanical Properties Investigation of Alloy Prepared by Additive Manufacturing Technology)

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14 pages, 106922 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Suitability of Laser Engineered Net Shaping Technology for Inconel 625 Based Parts Repair Process

by Izabela Barwinska, Mateusz Kopec, Magdalena Łazińska, Adam Brodecki, Tomasz Durejko and Zbigniew L. Kowalewski

Materials 2021, 14(23), 7302; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14237302 - 29 Nov 2021

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2298

Abstract

In this paper, the Inconel 625 laser clads characterized by microstructural homogeneity due to the application of the Laser Engineered Net Shaping (LENS, Optomec, Albuquerque, NM, USA) technology were studied in detail. The optimized LENS process parameters (laser power of 550 W, powder flow rate of 19.9 g/min, and heating of the substrate to 300 °C) enabled to deposit defect-free laser cladding. Additionally, the laser clad was applied in at least three layers on the repairing place. The deposited laser clads were characterized by slightly higher mechanical properties in comparison to the Inconel 625 substrate material. Microscopic observations and X-ray Tomography (XRT, Nikon Corporation, Tokyo, Japan) confirmed, that the substrate and cladding interface zone exhibited a defect-free structure. Mechanical properties and flexural strength of the laser cladding were examined using microhardness and three-point bending tests. It was concluded, that the LENS technology could be successfully applied for the repair since a similar strain distribution was found after Digital Image Correlation measurements during three-point bending tests. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Microstructural and Mechanical Properties Investigation of Alloy Prepared by Additive Manufacturing Technology)

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14 pages, 13705 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Influence of 3D Printing Parameters on Adhesion between Polylactic Acid (PLA) and Thermoplastic Polyurethane (TPU)

by Emila Brancewicz-Steinmetz, Jacek Sawicki and Paulina Byczkowska

Materials 2021, 14(21), 6464; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14216464 - 28 Oct 2021

Cited by 34 | Viewed by 5172

Abstract

A 3D printer in FDM technology allows printing with two nozzles, which creates an opportunity to produce multi-material elements. Printing from two materials requires special consideration of the interface zone generated between their geometrical boundaries. This article aims to present the possibility of printing with PLA and TPU using commercially available filaments and software to obtain the best possible bond strength between two different polymers with respect to printing parameters, surface pattern (due to the material contact surface’s roughness), and the order of layer application. The interaction at the interface of two surfaces of two different filaments (PLA-TPU and TPU-PLA) and six combinations of patterns were tested by printing seven replicas for each. A total of 12 combinations were obtained. By analyzing pairs of samples (the same patterns, different order of materials), the results for the TPU/PLA samples were better or very close to the results for PLA/TPU. The best variants of pattern combinations were distinguished. Well-chosen printing parameters can prevent a drop in parts efficiency compared to component materials (depending on the materials combination). Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Microstructural and Mechanical Properties Investigation of Alloy Prepared by Additive Manufacturing Technology)

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21 pages, 159480 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Additive Manufacturing of Plastics Used for Protection against COVID19—The Influence of Chemical Disinfection by Alcohol on the Properties of ABS and PETG Polymers

by Krzysztof Grzelak, Julia Łaszcz, Jakub Polkowski, Piotr Mastalski, Janusz Kluczyński, Jakub Łuszczek, Janusz Torzewski, Ireneusz Szachogłuchowicz and Rafał Szymaniuk

Materials 2021, 14(17), 4823; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14174823 - 25 Aug 2021

Cited by 15 | Viewed by 2693

Abstract

In this paper, the influence of disinfection on structural and mechanical properties of additive manufactured (AM) parts was analyzed. All AM parts used for a fight against COVID19 were disinfected using available methods—including usage of alcohols, high temperature, ozonation, etc.—which influence on AM parts properties has not been sufficiently analyzed. During this research, three types of materials dedicated for were tested in four different disinfection times and two disinfection liquid concentrations. It has been registered that disinfection liquid penetrated void into material’s volume, which caused an almost 20% decrease in tensile properties in parts manufactured using a glycol-modified version of polyethylene terephthalate (PETG). Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Microstructural and Mechanical Properties Investigation of Alloy Prepared by Additive Manufacturing Technology)

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16 pages, 14593 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Selective Laser Melted M300 Maraging Steel—Material Behaviour during Ballistic Testing

by Ireneusz Szachogłuchowicz, Bartosz Fikus, Krzysztof Grzelak, Janusz Kluczyński, Janusz Torzewski and Jakub Łuszczek

Materials 2021, 14(10), 2681; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14102681 - 20 May 2021

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 3300

Abstract

Significant growth in knowledge about metal additive manufacturing (AM) affects the increase of interest in military solutions, where there is always a need for unique technologies and materials. An important section of materials in the military are those dedicated to armour production. An AM material is characterised by different behaviour than those conventionally made, especially during more dynamic loading such as ballistics testing. In this paper, M300 maraging steel behavior was analysed under the condition of ballistic testing. The material was tested before and after solution annealing and ageing. This manuscript also contains some data based on structural analysis and tensile testing with digital image correlation. Based on the conducted research, M300 maraging steel was found to be a helpful material for some armour solutions after pre- or post-processing activities. Conducted solution annealing and ageing increased the ballistic properties by 87% in comparison to build samples. At the same time, the material’s brittleness increased, which affected a significant growth in fragmentation of the perforated plate. According to such phenomena, a detailed fracture analysis was made. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Microstructural and Mechanical Properties Investigation of Alloy Prepared by Additive Manufacturing Technology)

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12 pages, 9268 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Modification of Structural Properties Using Process Parameters and Surface Treatment of Monolithic and Thin-Walled Parts Obtained by Selective Laser Melting

by Krzysztof Grzelak, Janusz Kluczyński, Ireneusz Szachogłuchowicz, Jakub Łuszczek, Lucjan Śnieżek and Janusz Torzewski

Materials 2020, 13(24), 5662; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma13245662 - 11 Dec 2020

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 1915

Abstract

Additive manufacturing is one of the most popular technological processes and is being considered in many research works, a lot of which are related to thin-walled parts analysis. There are many cases where different part geometries were manufactured using the same process parameters. That kind of approach often causes different porosity and surface roughness values in the geometry of each produced part. In this work, the porosity of thin-walled and monolithic parts was compared. To analyze additively manufactured samples, porosity and microstructural analyses were done. Additionally, to check the influence of process parameter modification on the manufactured parts’ properties, hardness and roughness measurements were made. Surface roughness and the influence of surface treatment were also taken into account. Porosity reduction of thin-walled parts with energy density growth was observed. Additionally, a positive influence of slight energy density growth on the surface roughness of produced parts was registered. Comparing two extreme-parameter groups, it was observed that a 56% energy density increase caused an almost 85% decrease in porosity and a 45% increase in surface roughness. Additional surface treatment of the material allowed for a 70–90% roughness reduction. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Microstructural and Mechanical Properties Investigation of Alloy Prepared by Additive Manufacturing Technology)

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Review

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20 pages, 1040 KiB

Open AccessReview

Bonding and Strengthening the PLA Biopolymer in Multi-Material Additive Manufacturing

by Emila Brancewicz-Steinmetz and Jacek Sawicki

Materials 2022, 15(16), 5563; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15165563 - 13 Aug 2022

Cited by 20 | Viewed by 3847

Abstract

3D printing is a revolutionary additive manufacturing method that enables rapid prototyping and design flexibility. A variety of thermoplastic polymers can be used in printing. As it is necessary to reduce the consumption of petrochemical resources, alternative solutions are being researched, and the interest in using bioplastics and biocomposites is constantly growing. Often, however, the properties of biopolymers are insufficient and need to be improved to compete with petroleum-based plastics. The paper aims to analyze the available information on elements produced from more than one material, with additive manufacturing resulting from 3D printing using biopolymer Polylactic Acid (PLA). The study notes the possibility of modifying and improving the properties of PLA using layered printing or by modifying PLA filaments. Several modifications improving and changing the properties of PLA were also noted, including printing parameters when combined with other materials: process temperatures, filling, and surface development for various sample geometries. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Microstructural and Mechanical Properties Investigation of Alloy Prepared by Additive Manufacturing Technology)

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28 pages, 22479 KiB

Open AccessReview

A Critical Review on Effect of Process Parameters on Mechanical and Microstructural Properties of Powder-Bed Fusion Additive Manufacturing of SS316L

by Meet Gor, Harsh Soni, Vishal Wankhede, Pankaj Sahlot, Krzysztof Grzelak, Ireneusz Szachgluchowicz and Janusz Kluczyński

Materials 2021, 14(21), 6527; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14216527 - 29 Oct 2021

Cited by 52 | Viewed by 5582

Abstract

Additive manufacturing (AM) is one of the recently studied research areas, due to its ability to eliminate different subtractive manufacturing limitations, such as difficultly in fabricating complex parts, material wastage, and numbers of sequential operations. Laser-powder bed fusion (L-PBF) AM for SS316L is known for complex part production due to layer-by-layer deposition and is extensively used in the aerospace, automobile, and medical sectors. The process parameter selection is crucial for deciding the overall quality of the SS316L build component with L-PBF AM. This review critically elaborates the effect of various input parameters, i.e., laser power, scanning speed, hatch spacing, and layer thickness, on various mechanical properties of AM SS316L, such as tensile strength, hardness, and the effect of porosity, along with the microstructure evolution. The effect of other AM parameters, such as the build orientation, pre-heating temperature, and particle size, on the build properties is also discussed. The scope of this review also concerns the challenges in practical applications of AM SS316L. Hence, the residual stress formation, their influence on the mechanical properties and corrosion behavior of the AM build part for bio implant application is also considered. This review involves a detailed comparison of properties achievable with different AM techniques and various post-processing techniques, such as heat treatment and grain refinement effects on properties. This review would help in selecting suitable process parameters for various human body implants and many different applications. This study would also help to better understand the effect of each process parameter of PBF-AM on the SS316L build part quality. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Microstructural and Mechanical Properties Investigation of Alloy Prepared by Additive Manufacturing Technology)

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