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Antimicrobial Interventions for Raw and Processed Foods

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A special issue of Microorganisms (ISSN 2076-2607). This special issue belongs to the section "Food Microbiology".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (31 March 2021) | Viewed by 36719

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Special Issue Editors

Prof. Dr. Peter M. Muriana

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Guest Editor

1. Department of Animal and Food Sciences, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, OK 74078-6055, USA
2. Robert M. Kerr Food and Agricultural Product Center, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, OK 74078-6055, USA
Interests: food microbiology of raw and processed meats and produce; foodborne pathogens: Listeria monocytogenes, Salmonella spp., STEC E. coli; vegetable nitrite (‘natural nitrite’) vs sodium nitrite, Clostridium spp.; surrogate organisms to mimic pathogens; antimicrobial interventions (chemical, biological, physical; bacteriocins as biopreservatives); microbiology and processing of dried beef (biltong); biofilms; sanitizers; shelf-life studies/microbial validation
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Dr. John B. Luchansky

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Guest Editor

U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Wyndmoor, PA 19038, USA
Interests: foodborne pathogens (/Salmonella/, STEC, /L. monocytogenes/, clostridia, trichinae, toxoplasmas); interventions; detection; risk assessment; microbial modeling; molecular subrisk assessment; molecular subtyping; process validations/challenge studies

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

I am pleased to announce a Microorganisms Special Issue within the field of food microbiology: “Antimicrobial Interventions for Raw and Processed Foods”. This Special Issue will consider a wide scope of interventions, whether chemical, biological, or physical to reduce or eliminate foodborne pathogens or spoilage microorganisms from raw/processed foods. The Special Issue will also include analysis of microbial outcomes of such intervention: what happens to sensitive populations, the appearance of resistant isolates, or wholesale microbiome analysis as a result of interventions. The use of ‘natural’ antimicrobials (i.e., bacteriocins, bacteriophage, microbial fermentates, vegetable nitrite) has gained favor in applications such as food preservatives. In recent years, natural, microbial-derived ingredients have made gains in their acceptance as natural food ingredients. These include ‘microbial fermentates’ produced by lactic acid bacteria that are generally regarded as safe (GRAS). The appearance of numerous ‘microbial fermentates’ on the USDA-FSIS (USA) allowable ‘list of safe and suitable ingredients for use in meat and poultry products’ is a testament to this. Biological modifications using ‘safe’ bacteria have changed the outlook on ‘natural’ vs ‘chemical’ food preservatives and have made an impact on commercial applications in food. The USDA-FSIS has approved natural sources of nitrite that can be used in place of chemical nitrite as a ‘clean label’ additive. Such changes have revitalized many commercial processes. Antimicrobial interventions are not limited to chemical/biological treatments; there are also physical processes (drying, blanching, sous vide, hot water shower, submersed water pasteurization, radiant heat oven, microwave processing, high-pressure processing, cold atmospheric plasma) that can provide effective food safety measures to inhibit pathogens and spoilage organisms. As Guest Editor of this Special Issue, I look forward to receiving and reviewing your contributions to this topic.

Prof. Dr. Peter M. Muriana
Dr. John B. Luchansky
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

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Keywords

Antimicrobial interventions
Foodborne pathogens (L. monocytogenes, STEC E. coli, Salmonella)
Surrogate microorganisms
Inhibition of spore germination
Biofilms
microbial adherence
Bacteriocins as biopreservatives
Challenge studies
microbial validation

Published Papers (9 papers)

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Research

18 pages, 2668 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Isolation and Characterization of Two Lytic Bacteriophages Infecting a Multi-Drug Resistant Salmonella Typhimurium and Their Efficacy to Combat Salmonellosis in Ready-to-Use Foods

by Ahmed Esmael, Ehab Azab, Adil A. Gobouri, Mohamed A. Nasr-Eldin, Mahmoud M. A. Moustafa, Shereen A. Mohamed, Omnia A. M. Badr and Alzahraa M. Abdelatty

Microorganisms 2021, 9(2), 423; https://doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms9020423 - 18 Feb 2021

Cited by 37 | Viewed by 4121

Abstract

Foodborne salmonellosis is a global threat to public health. In the current study, we describe the isolation and characterization of two broad-spectrum, lytic Salmonella phages: SPHG1 and SPHG3 infecting a multidrug-resistant Salmonella Typhimurium EG.SmT3. Electron microscopy and whole genome analysis identified SPHG1 as a Myovirus, while SPHG3 as a new member of the genus “Kuttervirus” within the family Ackermannviridae. SPHG1 and SPHG3 had a lysis time of 60 min. with burst sizes of 104 and 138 PFU/cell, respectively. The two phages were robust at variable temperatures and pH ranges that match the corresponding values of most of the food storage and processing conditions. A phage cocktail containing the two phages was stable in the tested food articles for up to 48 h. The application of the phage cocktail at MOIs of 1000 or 100 resulted in a significant reduction in the viable count of S. Typhimurium by 4.2 log₁₀/sample in milk, water, and on chicken breast. Additionally, the phage cocktail showed a prospective ability to eradicate and reduce the biofilm that formed by S. Typhimurium EG.SmT3. A phage cocktail of SPHG1 and SPHG3 is considered as a promising candidate as a biocontrol agent against foodborne salmonellosis due to its broad host ranges, highly lytic activities, and the absence of any virulence or lysogeny-related genes in their genomes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Antimicrobial Interventions for Raw and Processed Foods)

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17 pages, 3457 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Antibacterial Effect of Stainless Steel Surfaces Treated with a Nanotechnological Coating Approved for Food Contact

by Alessandro Di Cerbo, Andrea Mescola, Giuseppe Rosace, Roberta Stocchi, Giacomo Rossi, Andrea Alessandrini, Silvia Preziuso, Antonio Scarano, Stefano Rea, Anna Rita Loschi and Carla Sabia

Microorganisms 2021, 9(2), 248; https://doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms9020248 - 26 Jan 2021

Cited by 15 | Viewed by 3214

Abstract

Stainless steel, widely present in the food industry, is frequently exposed to bacterial colonization with possible consequences on consumers’ health. 288 stainless steel disks with different roughness (0.25, 0.5 and 1 μm) were challenged with four Gram-negative (Escherichia coli ATCC 25922, Salmonella typhimurium ATCC 1402, Yersinia enterocolitica ATCC 9610 and Pseudomonas aeruginosa ATCC 27588) and four Gram-positive bacteria (Staphylococcus aureus ATCC 6538, Enterococcus faecalis ATCC 29212, Bacillus cereus ATCC 14579 and Listeria monocytogenes NCTT 10888) and underwent three different sanitizing treatments (UVC, alcohol 70% v/v and Gold lotion). Moreover, the same procedure was carried out onto the same surfaces after a nanotechnological surface coating (nanoXHAM^® D). A significant bactericidal effect was exerted by all of the sanitizing treatments against all bacterial strains regardless of roughness and surface coating. The nanoXHAM^® D coating itself induced an overall bactericidal effect as well as in synergy with all sanitizing treatments regardless of roughness. Stainless steel surface roughness is poorly correlated with bacterial adhesion and only sanitizing treatments can exert significant bactericidal effects. Most of sanitizing treatments are toxic and corrosive causing the onset of crevices that are able to facilitate bacterial nesting and growth. This nanotechnological coating can reduce surface adhesion with consequent reduction of bacterial adhesion, nesting, and growth. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Antimicrobial Interventions for Raw and Processed Foods)

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13 pages, 2816 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Potential for Bacteriophage Cocktail to Complement Commercial Sanitizer Use on Produce against Escherichia coli O157:H7

by Badrinath Vengarai Jagannathan, Steven Kitchens, Paul Priyesh Vijayakumar, Stuart Price and Melissa Morgan

Microorganisms 2020, 8(9), 1316; https://doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms8091316 - 29 Aug 2020

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 4488

Abstract

The increasing concern for food safety has created a need to evaluate novel techniques to eliminate or control pathogens, resulting in safe food. In this study, four bacteriophages of bovine origin, specific to E. coli O157:H7, were successfully isolated and characterized. A microplate reader assay demonstrated the efficacy of the bacteriophage (phage) cocktail against E. coli O157:H7 resulting in a significant reduction (p < 0.01) in the target pathogen population. The phage cocktail demonstrated significant efficacy (p < 0.05) against E. coli O157:H7 in the presence of the most utilized sanitizers in the United States, namely 100 parts per million (ppm) free chlorine and 100-ppm peroxyacetic acid. Survival in the sanitizer concentrations demonstrates the potential use of phage cocktail and sanitizer synergistically to enhance sanitation operations in the food industry. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Antimicrobial Interventions for Raw and Processed Foods)

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13 pages, 2681 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Characterization of Pediococcus acidilactici PFC69 and Lactococcus lactis PFC77 Bacteriocins and Their Antimicrobial Activities in Tarhana Fermentation

by Halil İbrahim Kaya and Ömer Şimşek

Microorganisms 2020, 8(7), 1083; https://doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms8071083 - 21 Jul 2020

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 2693

Abstract

Tarhana is a traditional cereal product fermented by lactic acid bacteria (LAB) and yeast strains that has gained special interest recently as an infant nutrition. Tarhana contains wheat flour, yogurt, and various vegetables that might create a microbiological toxicological risk, especially for Bacillus cereus and Staphylococcus aureus. In this study, characterization of the metabolites responsible for antibacterial activity of Pediococcus acidilactici PFC69 and Lactococcus lactis PFC77 strains obtained from tarhana was performed, and antibacterial effects were detected against B. cereus ATCC 11778 and S. aureus ATCC 29213 during the fermentation. A total of 12,800 AU/mL antibacterial activity was observed for the supernatants of the PFC69 and PFC77 strains that were found to be stable at high temperature and in low pH conditions and sensitive to proteases, suggesting the antimicrobial metabolite is a bacteriocin. These bacteriocins were further purified and their molecular sizes were determined as 4.5 and 3.5 kDa, respectively. Importantly, inoculation of PFC69 and PFC77 to tarhana dough significantly decreased B. cereus ATCC 11778 and S. aureus ATCC 29213 amounts from the fifth day of fermentation compared to the control dough samples. P. acidilactici PFC69 and L. lactis PFC77 strains were concluded as bioprotective cultures for tarhana and these strains were offered for other cereal-based fermentations. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Antimicrobial Interventions for Raw and Processed Foods)

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17 pages, 3977 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Processing of Biltong (Dried Beef) to Achieve USDA-FSIS 5-log Reduction of Salmonella without a Heat Lethality Step

by Caitlin E. Karolenko, Arjun Bhusal, Jacob L. Nelson and Peter M. Muriana

Microorganisms 2020, 8(5), 791; https://doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms8050791 - 25 May 2020

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 6097

Abstract

In the US, dried beef products (beef jerky) are a popular snack product in which the manufacture often requires the use of a heat lethality step to provide adequate reduction of pathogens of concern (i.e., 5-log reduction of Salmonella as recommended by the United States Department of Agriculture Food Safety and Inspection Service (USDA-FSIS)). Biltong, a South African-style dried beef product, is manufactured with low heat and humidity. Our objectives were to examine processes for the manufacture of biltong that achieves a 5-log reduction of Salmonella without a heat lethality step and with, or without, the use of additional antimicrobials. Beef pieces (1.9 cm × 5.1 cm × 7.6 cm) were inoculated with a 5-serovar mixture of Salmonella (Salmonella Thompson 120, Salmonella Heidelberg F5038BG1, Salmonella Hadar MF60404, Salmonella Enteritidis H3527, and Salmonella Typhimurium H3380), dipped in antimicrobial solutions (lactic acid, acidified calcium sulfate, sodium acid sulfate) or water (no additional antimicrobial), and marinaded while vacuum tumbling and/or while held overnight at 5 °C. After marination, beef pieces were hung in an oven set at 22.2 °C (72 °F), 23.9 °C (75 °F), or 25 °C (77 °F) depending on the process, and maintained at 55% relative humidity. Beef samples were enumerated for Salmonella after inoculation, after dip treatment, after marination, and after 2, 4, 6, and 8 days of drying. Water activity was generally <0.85 by the end of 6–8 days of drying and weight loss was as high as 60%. Trials also examined salt concentration (1.7%, 2.2%, 2.7%) and marinade vinegar composition (2%, 3%, 4%) in the raw formulation. Nearly all approaches achieved 5-log₁₀ reduction of Salmonella and was attributed to the manner of microbial enumeration eliminating the effects of microbial concentration on dried beef due to moisture loss. All trials were run as multiple replications and statistical analysis of treatments were determined by repeated measures analysis of variance (RM-ANOVA) to determine significant differences (p < 0.05). We believe this is the first published report of a biltong process achieving >5.0 log₁₀ reduction of Salmonella which is a process validation requirement of USDA-FSIS for the sale of dried beef in the USA. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Antimicrobial Interventions for Raw and Processed Foods)

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9 pages, 490 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Inactivation of Shiga Toxin-Producing Escherichia coli in Refrigerated and Frozen Meatballs Using High Pressure Processing

by Anna C. S. Porto-Fett, Armitra Jackson-Davis, Lamin S. Kassama, Marciauna Daniel, Michelle Oliver, YangJin Jung and John B. Luchansky

Microorganisms 2020, 8(3), 360; https://doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms8030360 - 3 Mar 2020

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 2861

Abstract

High pressure processing (HPP) was evaluated to inactivate Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli (STEC) in raw meatballs. Ground meat (>90% lean) was inoculated (ca. 7.0 log CFU/g) with a rifampicin-resistant cocktail of eight STEC strains (O26:H11, O45:H2, O103:H2, O104:H4, O111:H-, O121:H19, O145:NM, and O157:H7). Inoculated ground beef, ground veal, or a mixture of ground beef, pork, and veal were separately mixed with liquid whole eggs and seasonings, shaped by hand into meatballs (40 g each), and stored at −20 or at 4 °C for at least 18 h. Samples were then exposed to 400 or 600 MPa for 0 to 18 min. There were no differences (p > 0.05) in pathogen reduction related to the species of meat used or for meatballs that were refrigerated (0.9 to 2.9 log CFU/g) compared to otherwise similar meatballs that were stored frozen (1.0 to 3.0 log CFU/g) prior to HPP treatment. However, less time was needed to achieve a ≥ 2.0 log CFU/g reduction at 600 MPa (1 to 3 min) compared to 400 MPa (at least 9 min). This work provides new and practically useful information on the use of HPP to inactivate STEC in raw meatballs. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Antimicrobial Interventions for Raw and Processed Foods)

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19 pages, 4202 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Selenite Cystine Agar for Enumeration of Inoculated Salmonella Serovars Recovered from Stressful Conditions during Antimicrobial Validation Studies

by Caitlin E. Karolenko, Arjun Bhusal, Dhiraj Gautam and Peter M. Muriana

Microorganisms 2020, 8(3), 338; https://doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms8030338 - 28 Feb 2020

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 5110

Abstract

Process validation studies often require the inoculation of select foodborne pathogens into targeted foods to determine the lethality of the process or antimicrobial ingredients, and quantitative recovery of surviving inoculum bacteria helps to make those assessments. Such processes introduce various stressors on the inoculated challenge microorganisms whereby traditional selective media are too harsh to enumerate the remaining viable and injured population quantitatively. Innate antibiotic resistance of challenge organisms has often been used to establish simple selective media (i.e., Tryptic Soy Agar/TSA + antibiotics) for recovering inoculated strains, but sometimes antibiotic resistant background microorganisms are higher than desired. Salmonella Thompson 120, Salmonella Heidelberg F5038BG1, Salmonella Hadar MF60404, Salmonella Enteritidis H3527, and Salmonella Typhimurium H3380 were characterized for antibiotic resistance and acid adaptation in Tryptic Soy Broth containing 0%, 0.25%, or 1.0% glucose. Sodium pyruvate was evaluated for recovery after stress but no enhancing effect was observed, possibly because the strains were acid-adapted. Selenite Cystine Broth, traditionally used as a selective enrichment broth, was used as the basis for Selenite Cystine Agar (SCA) in combination with three antibiotics to which our Salmonella are resistant. Serovars of Salmonella, both individually and in mixtures, were enumerated on TSA, SCA, Xylose Lysine Desoxycholate (XLD), and Hektoen Enteric (HE) selective agars (all containing the same antibiotics) after conditions of nutrient starvation, desiccation, acid stress, and thermal stress. The data show that quantitative enumeration of our Salmonella serovars on SCA was not significantly different (p > 0.05) than those achieved on TSA for all tested stress categories. Levels of Salmonella enumerated on XLD and/or HE were significantly different (p < 0.05) than on TSA and SCA and often more than 1–2-log lower, consistent with the inhibition of injured cells. These data confirm that SCA (+ antibiotics) is a suitable selective medium for enumeration of these acid-adapted Salmonella serovars as challenge organisms recovered from various conditions of stress. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Antimicrobial Interventions for Raw and Processed Foods)

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13 pages, 1315 KiB

Open AccessCommunication

Identification of Rhizospheric Actinomycete Streptomyces lavendulae SPS-33 and the Inhibitory Effect of its Volatile Organic Compounds against Ceratocystis fimbriata in Postharvest Sweet Potato (Ipomoea batatas (L.) Lam.)

by Xuewei Li, Beibei Li, Shurui Cai, Yu Zhang, Mingjie Xu, Chunmei Zhang, Bo Yuan, Ke Xing and Sheng Qin

Microorganisms 2020, 8(3), 319; https://doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms8030319 - 25 Feb 2020

Cited by 41 | Viewed by 4323

Abstract

Black spot disease, which is caused by the pathogenic fungal Ceratocystis fimbriata, seriously affects the production of sweet potato and its quality during postharvest storage. In this study, the preliminary identification of the rhizosphere actinomycete strain SPS-33, and its antifungal activity of volatiles in vitro and in vivo was investigated. Based on morphological identification and phylogenetic analysis of the 16S rRNA gene sequence, strain SPS-33 was identified as Streptomyces lavendulae. Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) emitted by SPS-33 inhibited mycelial growth and sporulation of C. fimbriata in vitro and also induced a series of observable hyphae morphological changes. In an in vivo pathogenicity assay, exposure to SPS-33 significantly decreased the lesion diameter and water loss rate in sweet potato tuberous roots (TRs) inoculated with C. fimbriata. It increased the antioxidant enzymes’ activities of peroxidase, catalase, and superoxide dismutase as well as decreased malondialdehyde and increased total soluble sugar. In the VOC profile of SPS-33 detected by a headspace solid-phase micro extraction (HS-SPME) and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS), heptadecane, tetradecane, and 3-methyl-1-butanol were the most abundant compounds. 2-Methyl-1-butanol, 3-methyl-1-butanol, pyridine, and phenylethyl alcohol showed strong antifungal effects against C. fimbriata. These findings suggest that VOCs from S. lavendulae SPS-33 have the potential for pathogen C. fimbriata control in sweet potato postharvest storage by fumigant action. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Antimicrobial Interventions for Raw and Processed Foods)

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9 pages, 873 KiB

Open AccessCommunication

Disinfection of Ready-to-Eat Lettuce Using Polyhexamethylene Guanidine Hydrochloride

by Jiayi Wang, Yougui Yu and Yuemei Dong

Microorganisms 2020, 8(2), 272; https://doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms8020272 - 17 Feb 2020

Cited by 13 | Viewed by 3059

Abstract

As a novel and safe sanitizer, polyhexamethylene guanidine hydrochloride (PHMG) has been used to inhibit the spoilage of agricultural products caused by fungi. However, little is known about its antibacterial effects on vegetables. In this study, we evaluated the disinfection efficacy of PHMG on ready-to-eat lettuce. PHMG (150–200 mg/L) treatment for 5 min was optimal for lettuce disinfection. Compared to several household sanitizers (vinegar: 1% acetic acid; kettle descaler: 1% citric acid; “84” disinfectant: 200 mg/L sodium hypochlorite), PHMG showed the greatest reductions in Escherichia coli O157:H7, Listeria monocytogenes, aerobic mesophilic counts, aerobic psychrotrophic counts and molds and yeasts. Quality analysis of color (as determined by L*, a* and b*) and determination of electrolyte leakage indicated that PHMG did not cause any additional quality loss as compared to other household sanitizers. These results provide a reference for the application of PHMG as a vegetable sanitizer at the ready-to-eat stage. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Antimicrobial Interventions for Raw and Processed Foods)

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