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3 pages, 182 KiB

Open AccessEditorial

Editorial for the Special Issue “Mineralogy, Geochemistry and Geochronology of W-Sn Polymetallic Deposits”

by Huan Li, Rongqing Zhang, Jiehua Yang and Jingya Cao

Minerals 2023, 13(4), 526; https://doi.org/10.3390/min13040526 - 7 Apr 2023

Viewed by 1435

Abstract

Tungsten and tin deposits provide numerous valuable and critical resources to the world, which has led to them attracting the increasing attention of economic geologists [...] Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mineralogy, Geochemistry and Geochronology of W-Sn Polymetallic Deposits)

Research

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19 pages, 4773 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Tungsten–Gold Metallogenetic Potential of the Ziyunshan Pluton in Central Hunan, South China: Insights from Element Geochemistry of Granites

by Jiahao Leng, Yulong Lu, Xingqiang Li, Xiangying Zhao and Yang Liu

Minerals 2023, 13(2), 144; https://doi.org/10.3390/min13020144 - 18 Jan 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2207

Abstract

In order to reveal the metallogenic potential of the Indosinian Ziyunshan granite in central Hunan, the temporal, spatial and genetic relationship between the mineralization and the granite is discussed, and the concentrations of ore-forming elements for different granites are measured. The geochemistry of [...] Read more.

In order to reveal the metallogenic potential of the Indosinian Ziyunshan granite in central Hunan, the temporal, spatial and genetic relationship between the mineralization and the granite is discussed, and the concentrations of ore-forming elements for different granites are measured. The geochemistry of the elements, isotope geochemistry and chronology, and the data derived from the analysis on Au-W deposit in the area are compared with the geologic features of the regional metallogenic rock. The results indicate that Ziyunshan granite is an irregular shaped complex of late Indosinian by multi-stage intrusion. Elements such as W, Sn, Cu, Pb, Ag, Sb, Be, Li and Ta are enriched in the granite. The sulfophilic elements including Au, Pb, Zn and Ag are relatively enriched in the main body of the Ziyunshan granite, while the lithophilic elements including W and Sn are relatively enriched in the late phase of the Ziyunshan granite. The zoning of the ore-forming elements could be observed in the granite: Nb and Ta (inside the granite); W, Sn, Mo and Bi (inner contact zone); Pb, Zn and Cu (contact zone); and Au and Sb (outer contact zone). All the deposits in the area are formed after the intrusion of the Ziyunshan granite except the Ni-Ta-Sn ore formed simultaneously with the Ziyunshan granite. The Ziyunshan granite provides necessary heat, active fluid and partial ore-forming materials sources, which may show good metallogenic potential. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mineralogy, Geochemistry and Geochronology of W-Sn Polymetallic Deposits)

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35 pages, 19706 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Petrogenesis and Metallogenesis of Granitoids in the Yangla Cu-W Polymetallic Deposit, Southwest China: Evidence from Zircon Trace Elements and Hf Isotope

by Xinfu Wang, Bo Li, Guo Tang, Zhen Lei and He Chang

Minerals 2022, 12(11), 1427; https://doi.org/10.3390/min12111427 - 10 Nov 2022

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 1962

Abstract

Magmatic zircon tends to present characteristic trends in trace element compositions in response to magma petrogenesis and metallogenesis, such that zircon may provide a window into melt evolution not accessible by whole rock chemistry. The Yangla large Cu deposit is located in the [...] Read more.

Magmatic zircon tends to present characteristic trends in trace element compositions in response to magma petrogenesis and metallogenesis, such that zircon may provide a window into melt evolution not accessible by whole rock chemistry. The Yangla large Cu deposit is located in the central part of the Jinshajiang Suture Zone, southwest China, constrained between the Jinshajiang and Yangla Faults. In this study, the trace elements and hafnium isotopic compositions of zircons from quartz diorite were studied. Previous published relevant data of Yangla granitoid plutons (i.e., dioritic enclave, granodiorite, and quartz monzonite porphyry) also have been systematically cited and discussed. The result shows that the crystallization temperature and two-stage Hf mode ages (t^C_DM; the age of the source rocks for the magmas) gradually increased while the oxygen fugacity (fO₂) and ε_Hf(t) values gradually decreased, corresponding to the diorite enclave (~232 Ma), through granodiorite (~208 Ma) and quartz monzonite porphyry (~202 Ma), and to quartz diorite (~195 Ma). It is suggested that four plutons were from the same three-component mixing of upper crust + lower crust + mantle magmas, while the upper crustal metasediments ratios were gradually increased from the early to late stage. The increasing upper crust inputs resulted in higher melting temperatures and compositions of the initial magma. All melts experienced distinct fractional crystallization of apatite, titanite, and amphibole, and the later granite melts experienced higher assimilation and fractional crystallization degrees than the early ones in the evolution processes four stages of intrusive rocks. These Yangla granitoids are the products of large-scale acid magmatic emplacement activities in the Triassic-early Jurassic and have a good metallogenic potential of the Cu-W polymetallic deposit. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mineralogy, Geochemistry and Geochronology of W-Sn Polymetallic Deposits)

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24 pages, 18678 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Geochronology and Geochemistry of the Xianghualing Granitic Rocks: Insights into Multi-Stage Sn-Polymetallic Mineralization in South China

by Zhaoyang Luo, Huan Li, Jinghua Wu, Wenbo Sun, Jianqi Zhou and Adi Maulana

Minerals 2022, 12(9), 1091; https://doi.org/10.3390/min12091091 - 29 Aug 2022

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2803

Abstract

Multi-stage magmatic events associated with large tungsten-tin polymetallic deposits in the Nanling Range have been the subject of extensive research spanning many years. In this paper we report the results of a systematic study of the petrology, whole-rock geochemistry, zircon U-Pb chronology, and [...] Read more.

Multi-stage magmatic events associated with large tungsten-tin polymetallic deposits in the Nanling Range have been the subject of extensive research spanning many years. In this paper we report the results of a systematic study of the petrology, whole-rock geochemistry, zircon U-Pb chronology, and trace element geochemistry of granite bodies exposed in the Xianghualing ore field. They show that the granites in the study area are characterized by high SiO₂ (63.83%–75.29%), Al₂O₃ (13.12%–18.87%), Rb (565–3260 ppm), Nd (67.3–113.5 ppm) and Ta (23.2–129.0 ppm) and by low MgO (0.02%–0.22%), TiO₂ (0%–0.02%), Sr (5.3–80.5 ppm) and Ba (7.9–66.4 ppm). The rocks are highly differentiated A-type peraluminous granite, which originated in an extensional within-plate tectonic setting. Based on U-Pb dating and trace element analysis, the following multi-stage magma-hydrothermal events were identified: (1) Paleozoic (~347 Ma) and Triassic (~206 Ma) magmatic stages (initial enrichment epochs of ore-forming elements), (2) Jurassic (~161 Ma) magmatic-hydrothermal stage (mineralization epoch), and (3) Cretaceous hydrothermal overprinting stage (with peaks in the Early Cretaceous ~120 Ma and Late Cretaceous ~80 Ma). From an economic point of view, the Late Cretaceous appears to have great potential for tungsten-tin mineralization. Zircon trace element geochemistry indicates that the ore-forming fluids related to tin mineralization in the Cretaceous originated from the crust and underwent highly differentiated evolutionary processes under relatively reducing conditions. This paper emphasizes the Cretaceous tungsten-tin metallogenic events in the Nanling Range and provides an essential basis and new ideas for further tin-tungsten exploration. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mineralogy, Geochemistry and Geochronology of W-Sn Polymetallic Deposits)

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24 pages, 6395 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Geochronology, Whole-Rock Geochemistry, and Sr–Nd–Hf Isotopes of Granitoids in the Tongshanling Ore Field, South China: Insights into Cu and W Metallogenic Specificity

by Yuyu Tang, Hua Kong, Biao Liu, Qi Zong, Qianhong Wu, Hua Jiang and Fucheng Tan

Minerals 2022, 12(7), 892; https://doi.org/10.3390/min12070892 - 15 Jul 2022

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2225

Abstract

The Qin-Hang Metallogenic Belt (QHMB), an important metallogenic belt in South China, hosts Cu and W–Sn polymetallic deposits. The Tongshanling ore field in the QHMB is characterized by the coexistence of Cu- and W-bearing polymetallic deposits, which are related to granodiorite and granite [...] Read more.

The Qin-Hang Metallogenic Belt (QHMB), an important metallogenic belt in South China, hosts Cu and W–Sn polymetallic deposits. The Tongshanling ore field in the QHMB is characterized by the coexistence of Cu- and W-bearing polymetallic deposits, which are related to granodiorite and granite porphyry. This study examined whole-rock geochemistry, geochronology, and Sr–Nd–Hf isotopes to determine the genetic relationship between diverse ore-related granitoids (i.e., granodiorite and granite porphyry) and Cu–W metallogeny in the Tongshanling ore field. Zircon LA-ICP-MS U–Pb dating shows that the granodiorite and granite porphyry in the Tongshanling ore field were emplaced at 163.7 ± 0.4 Ma to 154.7 ± 0.6 Ma and 161.1 ± 0.3 Ma, respectively. Geochemically, the granodiorites are classified as oxidized I-type, while the highly evolved granite porphyry is reduced A-type. The Lu–Hf isotopic composition of the granodiorites is characterized by εHf(t) values ranging from –10.49 to –4.99 (average = –7.17), with corresponding T_DM^C ages ranging from 1524 to 1877 Ma (average = 1682 Ma). In contrast, the granite porphyry has higher εHf(t) values (–3.60 to –1.58, average = –2.78) and younger T_DM^C (1310–1438 Ma, average = 1387 Ma). The εNd(t) values of granodiorite are −8.06 to −7.37 and the two-stage model ages (T_DM2) are 1543–1598 Ma, while the granite porphyry has higher εNd(t) values (−3.0 to −3.4) and younger T_DM2 ages (1195–1223 Ma). The results show that the granodiorite and granite porphyry were formed from partial melting of different Mesoproterozoic basement rocks under varying degrees of crust–mantle interaction. Granite porphyry underwent well-recorded fractional crystallization. Compared to the Cu-forming granodiorite, the W-forming granite porphyry has a higher differentiation index, higher crystallization temperatures of zircon (average = 708 °C versus 631 °C), and lower oxygen fugacity (median ΔFMQ = –2.21 versus –1.77). Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mineralogy, Geochemistry and Geochronology of W-Sn Polymetallic Deposits)

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14 pages, 3681 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Mantle-Derived Noble Gas Isotopes in the Ore-Forming Fluid of Xingluokeng W-Mo Deposit, Fujian Province

by Yun Gao, Bailin Chen, Liyan Wu, Jianfeng Gao, Guangqian Zeng and Jinghui Shen

Minerals 2022, 12(5), 595; https://doi.org/10.3390/min12050595 - 7 May 2022

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2084

Abstract

China has the largest W reserves in the world, which are mainly concentrated in south China. Although previous studies have been carried out on whether mantle material is incorporated in granites associated with W deposits, the conclusions have been inconsistent. However, rare gas [...] Read more.

China has the largest W reserves in the world, which are mainly concentrated in south China. Although previous studies have been carried out on whether mantle material is incorporated in granites associated with W deposits, the conclusions have been inconsistent. However, rare gas isotopes can be used to study the contribution of mantle-to-W mineralization. In this paper, we investigated the He and Ar isotope compositions of fluid inclusions in pyrite and wolframite from the Xingluokeng ultra-large W-Mo deposit to evaluate the origin of ore-forming fluids and discuss the contribution of the mantle-to-tungsten mineralization. The He-Ar isotopic compositions showed that the ³He/⁴He ratios of the ore-forming fluid of the Xingluokeng deposit ranged from 0.14 to 1.01 Ra (Ra is the ³He/⁴He ratio of air, 1 Ra = 1.39 × 10⁻⁶), with an average of 0.58 Ra, which is between the ³He/⁴He ratios of mantle fluids and crustal fluids, suggesting that the mantle-derived He was added to the mineralizing fluid, with a mean of 8.7%. The ⁴⁰Ar/³⁶Ar ratios of these samples ranged from 361 to 817, with an average of 578, between the atmospheric ⁴⁰Ar/³⁶Ar and the crustal and/or mantle ⁴⁰Ar/³⁶Ar. The results of the He-Ar isotopes from Xingluokeng W-Mo deposit showed that the ore-forming fluid of the deposit was not the product of the evolution of pure crustal melt. The upwelling mantle plays an important role in the formation of tungsten deposits. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mineralogy, Geochemistry and Geochronology of W-Sn Polymetallic Deposits)

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20 pages, 5461 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Metallogenesis of the Bawang Sn-Zn Polymetallic Deposit, Wuxu Ore Field, Guangxi, South China: U-Pb Dating and C-O-S-Pb Isotopic Constraints

by Enyun Liang, Dezhi Huang, Guangqian Zeng, Gengyin Liu, Guangjun Zou, Peng Luo and Di Chen

Minerals 2022, 12(2), 137; https://doi.org/10.3390/min12020137 - 25 Jan 2022

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 3097

Abstract

The Bawang deposit, located in the west of Wuxu ore field, southern section of the Nandan-Hechi metallogenic belt, is a medium-sized tin–zinc polymetallic deposit. Its genesis has been a matter of debate because of lacking constraints from isotope geology. In this study, LA-MC-ICP-MS [...] Read more.

The Bawang deposit, located in the west of Wuxu ore field, southern section of the Nandan-Hechi metallogenic belt, is a medium-sized tin–zinc polymetallic deposit. Its genesis has been a matter of debate because of lacking constraints from isotope geology. In this study, LA-MC-ICP-MS U-Pb dating of cassiterite and C-O-S-Pb isotope analyses of monominerals were used to investigate the mineralization age and source of the ore-forming minerals in the Bawang deposit. LA-ICP-MS U–Pb dating of cassiterite yielded ages of 93.1 ± 4.8 Ma and 85.3 ± 6.3 Ma, indicating that the mineralization occurred in the early Late Cretaceous. The δ¹³C_PDB and δ¹⁸O_SMOW values of calcites at the ore stage range between −0.41‰ and 0.44‰ (average = −11‰) and between 13.8‰ and 15.40‰ (average = 14.59‰), respectively. This shows that ore fluid sources were a mixture of those derived from magma and stratum. Pyrite and sphalerite have uniform δ³⁴S values (−4.45‰~−2.20‰), indicating that sulfur is also derived from the mixing of magmatic hydrothermal and stratum fluids. The Pb isotopic composition of sulfide (²⁰⁶Pb/²⁰⁴Pb = 18.4055~18.7625, ²⁰⁷Pb/²⁰⁴Pb = 15.6745~15.7209, ²⁰⁸Pb/²⁰⁴Pb = 38.6232~39.0370) is consistent with the granite of the same age, indicating that ore-forming metals are mainly derived from magmatic hydrothermal solution. The Bawang deposit is a hydrothermal vein-type deposit in the external contact zone of Late Cretaceous granite, controlled by tectonic fractures, and formed by the interaction of magmatic hydrothermal fluid and carbonate rock. There may be large skarn-type ore bodies in the deep part. The results of this study provide insights into the research and exploration of similar deposits in Nandan-Hechi metallogenic belt and in the Youjiang Basin. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mineralogy, Geochemistry and Geochronology of W-Sn Polymetallic Deposits)

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24 pages, 8541 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Fluid Evolution and Ore Genesis of the Juyuan Tungsten Deposit, Beishan, NW China

by Qiaojuan Yan, Zhengle Chen, Zhenju Zhou, Tongyang Zhao, Qiong Han, Jilin Li, Bo Liu and Wengao Zhang

Minerals 2021, 11(12), 1309; https://doi.org/10.3390/min11121309 - 24 Nov 2021

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2223

Abstract

The newly discovered Juyuan tungsten deposit is hosted in Triassic granite in the Beishan Orogen, NW China. The tungsten mineralization occurred as quartz veins, and the main ore minerals included wolframite and scheelite. The age, origin, and tectonic setting of the Juyuan tungsten [...] Read more.

The newly discovered Juyuan tungsten deposit is hosted in Triassic granite in the Beishan Orogen, NW China. The tungsten mineralization occurred as quartz veins, and the main ore minerals included wolframite and scheelite. The age, origin, and tectonic setting of the Juyuan tungsten deposit, however, remain poorly understood. According to the mineralogical assemblages and crosscutting relationships, three hydrothermal stages can be identified, i.e., the early stage of quartz veins with scheelite and wolframite, the intermediate stage of quartz veinlets with sulfides, and the late stage of carbonate-quartz veinlets with tungsten being mainly introduced in the early stage. Quartz formed in the two earlier stages contained four compositional types of fluid inclusions, i.e., pure CO₂, CO₂-H₂O, daughter mineral-bearing, and NaCl-H₂O, but the late-stage quartz only contained the NaCl-H₂O inclusions. The inclusions in quartz formed in the early, intermediate, and late stages had total homogenization temperatures of 230–344 °C, 241−295 °C, and 184−234 °C, respectively, with salinities no higher than 7.2 wt.% NaCl equiv (equivalent). Trapping pressures estimated from the CO₂-H₂O inclusions were 33−256 MPa and 36−214 MPa in the early and intermediate stages, corresponding to mineralization depths of 3–8 km. Fluid boiling and mixing caused rapid precipitation of wolframite, scheelite, and sulfides. Through boiling and inflow of meteoric water, the ore-forming fluid system evolved from CO₂-rich to CO₂-poor in composition and from magmatic to meteoric, as indicated by decreasing δ¹⁸O_water values from early to late stages. The sulfur and lead isotope compositions in the intermediate-stage suggest that the Triassic granite was a significant source of ore metals. The biotite ⁴⁰Ar/³⁹Ar age from the W-bearing quartz shows that the Juyuan tungsten system was formed at 240.0 ± 1.0 Ma, coeval with the emplacement of granitic rocks at the deposit. Integrating the data obtained from the studies including regional geology, ore geology, biotite Ar-Ar geochronology, fluid inclusion, and C-H-O-S-Pb isotope geochemistry, we conclude that the Juyuan tungsten deposit was a quartz-vein type system that originated from the emplacement of the granites, which was induced by collision between the Tarim and Kazakhstan–Ili plates. A comparison of the characteristics of tungsten mineralization in East Tianshan and Beishan suggests that the Triassic tungsten metallogenic belt in East Tianshan extends to the Beishan orogenic belt and that the west of the orogenic belt also has potential for the discovery of further quartz-vein-type tungsten deposits. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mineralogy, Geochemistry and Geochronology of W-Sn Polymetallic Deposits)

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21 pages, 12156 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Texture and Geochemistry of Scheelites in the Tongshankou Deposit in Daye, Hubei, China: Implication for REE Substitution Mechanism and Multistage W Mineralization Processes

by Rui-Zhe Zhao, Min-Fang Wang, Huan Li, Xiao-Yu Shang, Zaheen Ullah and Jun-Peng Wang

Minerals 2021, 11(9), 984; https://doi.org/10.3390/min11090984 - 9 Sep 2021

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 3244

Abstract

The Tongshankou skarn deposit in the Edong ore district is a typical metasomatic deposit associated with adjacent granodiorite porphyry and carbonate rocks. Using comprehensive microscopic observations, mineralogical and geochemical analysis, scheelite grains in the skarns can be classified into three major types, showing [...] Read more.

The Tongshankou skarn deposit in the Edong ore district is a typical metasomatic deposit associated with adjacent granodiorite porphyry and carbonate rocks. Using comprehensive microscopic observations, mineralogical and geochemical analysis, scheelite grains in the skarns can be classified into three major types, showing multi-stage mineralization characteristics. In the redox fluid environment, scheelites that occur with garnets usually have affinity to garnets, while in later skarn phases others exist with oxides and sulfides. They can be subdivided by trace elements, such as Nb and Eu, to discuss the detailed ore-forming process. Scheelites have three typical substitution mechanisms including: 2Ca^{2 +} ⇌ REE^{3 +} +Na⁺ (1); Ca^{2 +} + W^{6 +} ⇌ REE^{3 +} +Nb⁵⁺(2); and 3Ca^{2 +} ⇌ 2REE³⁺+ □Ca (□Ca = Ca site vacancy) (3). Plagioclase or various hydrothermal stages can cause Eu anomalies to fluctuate from positive to negative, and these processes can cause particular zonation in W and Mo contents in scheelites. This study highlights the use of texture and geochemistry of scheelites in skarn deposits, depicting the W mineralization processes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mineralogy, Geochemistry and Geochronology of W-Sn Polymetallic Deposits)

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19 pages, 4469 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Episodic Precipitation of Wolframite during An Orogen: The Echassières District, Variscan Belt of France

by Loïs Monnier, Jérémie Melleton, Olivier Vanderhaeghe, Stefano Salvi, Philippe Lach, Olivier Bruguier, Anissa Benmammar, Laurent Bailly, Didier Béziat and Eric Gloaguen

Minerals 2021, 11(9), 923; https://doi.org/10.3390/min11090923 - 26 Aug 2021

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 3262

Abstract

Monazite and rutile occurring in hydrothermally altered W mineralizations, in the Echassières district of the French Massif Central (FMC), were dated by U-Pb isotopic systematics using in-situ Laser ablation-inductively coupled plasma–quadrupole mass spectrometry (LA-ICP-MS). The resulting dates record superimposed evidence for multiple percolation [...] Read more.

Monazite and rutile occurring in hydrothermally altered W mineralizations, in the Echassières district of the French Massif Central (FMC), were dated by U-Pb isotopic systematics using in-situ Laser ablation-inductively coupled plasma–quadrupole mass spectrometry (LA-ICP-MS). The resulting dates record superimposed evidence for multiple percolation of mineralizing fluids in the same area. Cross-referencing these ages with cross-cutting relationships and published geochronological data reveals a long history of more than 50 Ma of W mineralization in the district. These data, integrated in the context of the Variscan belt evolution and compared to other major W provinces in the world, point to an original geodynamic-metallogenic scenario. The formation, probably during the Devonian, of a quartz-vein stockwork (1st generation of wolframite, called wolframite “a”; >360 Ma) of porphyry magmatic arc affinity is analogous to the Sn-W belts of the Andes and the Nanling range in China. This stockwork was affected by Barrovian metamorphism, induced by tectonic accretion and crustal thickening, during the middle Carboniferous (360 to 350 Ma). Intrusion of a concealed post-collisional peraluminous Visean granite, at 333 Ma, was closely followed by precipitation of a second generation of wolframite (termed “b”), from greisen fluids in the stockwork and host schist. This W-fertile magmatic episode has been widely recorded in the Variscan belt of central Europe, e.g. in the Erzgebirge, but with a time lag of 10–15 Ma. During orogenic collapse, a third magmatic episode was characterized by the intrusion of numerous rare-metal granites (RMG), which crystallized at ~310 Ma in the FMC and in Iberia. One of these, the Beauvoir granite in the Echassières district, led to the formation of the wolframite “c” generation during greisen alteration. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mineralogy, Geochemistry and Geochronology of W-Sn Polymetallic Deposits)

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22 pages, 4262 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Periodically Released Magmatic Fluids Create a Texture of Unidirectional Solidification (UST) in Ore-Forming Granite: A Fluid and Melt Inclusion Study of W-Mo Forming Sannae-Eonyang Granite, Korea

by Jung Hun Seo, Yevgeniya Kim, Tongha Lee and Marcel Guillong

Minerals 2021, 11(8), 888; https://doi.org/10.3390/min11080888 - 18 Aug 2021

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 3338

Abstract

The Upper Cretaceous Sannae-Eonyang granite crystallized approximately 73 Ma and hosted the Sannae W-Mo deposit in the west and the Eonyang amethyst deposit in the east. The granite contained textural zones of miarolitic cavities and unidirectional solidification texture (UST) quartz. The UST rock [...] Read more.

The Upper Cretaceous Sannae-Eonyang granite crystallized approximately 73 Ma and hosted the Sannae W-Mo deposit in the west and the Eonyang amethyst deposit in the east. The granite contained textural zones of miarolitic cavities and unidirectional solidification texture (UST) quartz. The UST rock sampled in the Eonyang amethyst mine consisted of (1) early cavity-bearing aplitic granite, (2) co-crystallization of feldspars and quartz in a granophyric granite, and (3) the latest unidirectional growth of larger quartz crystals with clear zonation patterns. After the UST quartz was deposited, aplite or porphyritic granite was formed, repeating the prior sequence. Fluid and melt inclusions occurring in the UST quartz and quartz phenocrysts were sampled and studied to understand the magmatic-hydrothermal processes controlling UST formation and W-Mo mineralization in the granite. The composition of melt inclusions in the quartz phenocrysts suggested that the UST was formed by fractionated late-stage granite. Some of the melt inclusions occurring in the early-stage UST quartz were associated with aqueous inclusions, indicating fluid exsolution from a granitic melt. Hypersaline brine inclusions allowed the calculation of the minimum trapping pressure of 80–2300 bars. Such a highly fluctuating fluid pressure might be potentially due to a lithostatic-hydrostatic transition of pressure-attending fluid loss during UST formation. Highly fluctuating lithostatic-hydrostatic pressures created by fluid exsolution allowed shifting of the stability field from a quartz-feldspar cotectic to a single-phase quartz. The compositions of brine fluid assemblages hosted in the quartz phenocrysts deviated from the fluids trapped in the UST quartz, especially regarding the Rb/Sr and Fe/Mn ratios and W and Mo concentrations. The study of melt and fluid inclusions in the Eonyang UST sample showed that the exsolution of magmatic fluid was highly periodic. A single pulse of magmatic fluids of variable salinities/densities might have created a single UST sequence, and a new batch of magmatic fluid exsolution would be required to create the next UST sequence. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mineralogy, Geochemistry and Geochronology of W-Sn Polymetallic Deposits)

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21 pages, 5959 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Mechanisms Forming the Five–Floor Zonation of Quartz Veins: A Case Study in the Piaotang Tungsten–Tin Deposit, Southern China

by Xiangchong Liu, Wenlei Wang and Dehui Zhang

Minerals 2021, 11(8), 883; https://doi.org/10.3390/min11080883 - 16 Aug 2021

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 3382

Abstract

It is common among many vein–type tungsten deposits in southern China that the thickness of ore veins increases from <1 cm to >1 m with increasing depth. A five–floor zonation model for the vertical trend of vein morphology was proposed in the 1960s [...] Read more.

It is common among many vein–type tungsten deposits in southern China that the thickness of ore veins increases from <1 cm to >1 m with increasing depth. A five–floor zonation model for the vertical trend of vein morphology was proposed in the 1960s and has been widely applied for predicting ore bodies at deeper levels, but the causative mechanisms for such a zonation remain poorly understood. The Piaotang tungsten–tin deposit, one of the birthplaces of the five–floor zonation model, is chosen as a case study for deciphering the mechanisms forming its morphological zonation of quartz veins. The vertical trend of vein morphology and its link to the W–Sn mineralization in Piaotang was quantified by statistical distributions (Weibull distribution and power law distribution) of vein thickness and ore grade data (WO₃ and Sn) from the levels of 676 m to 328 m. Then, the micro–scale growth history of quartz veins was reconstructed by scanning electron microscope–cathodoluminescence (SEM–CL) imaging and in situ trace element analysis. The Weibull modulus

α

of vein thickness increases with increasing depth, and the fractal dimensions of both vein thickness and ore grade data (WO₃ and Sn) decrease with increasing depth. Their vertical changes indicate that the fractures that bear the thick veins were well connected, facilitating fluid focusing and mineralization in mechanically stronger host rocks. Three generations (Q1–Q3) of quartz were identified from CL images, and the CL intensity of quartz is possibly controlled by the concentrations of Al and temperature. From the relative abundance of the Q1–Q3 quartz at different levels, the vertical trend of vein morphology in Piaotang was initially produced during the hydrothermal event represented by Q1 and altered by later hydrothermal events represented by Q2 and Q3. Statistical distributions of vein thickness combined with SEM–CL imaging of quartz could be combined to evaluate the mineralization potential at deeper levels. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mineralogy, Geochemistry and Geochronology of W-Sn Polymetallic Deposits)

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16 pages, 4789 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Ore Genesis of the Takatori Tungsten–Quartz Vein Deposit, Japan: Chemical and Isotopic Evidence

by Yuichi Morishita and Yoshiro Nishio

Minerals 2021, 11(7), 765; https://doi.org/10.3390/min11070765 - 15 Jul 2021

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 3263

Abstract

The Takatori hypothermal tin–tungsten vein deposit is composed of wolframite-bearing quartz veins with minor cassiterite, chalcopyrite, pyrite, and lithium-bearing muscovite and sericite. Several wolframite rims show replacement textures, which are assumed to form by iron replacement with manganese postdating the wolframite precipitation. Lithium [...] Read more.

The Takatori hypothermal tin–tungsten vein deposit is composed of wolframite-bearing quartz veins with minor cassiterite, chalcopyrite, pyrite, and lithium-bearing muscovite and sericite. Several wolframite rims show replacement textures, which are assumed to form by iron replacement with manganese postdating the wolframite precipitation. Lithium isotope ratios (δ⁷Li) of Li-bearing muscovite from the Takatori veins range from −3.1‰ to −2.1‰, and such Li-bearing muscovites are proven to occur at the early stage of mineralization. Fine-grained sericite with lower Li content shows relatively higher δ⁷Li values, and might have precipitated after the main ore forming event. The maximum oxygen isotope equilibrium temperature of quartz–muscovite pairs is 460 °C, and it is inferred that the fluids might be in equilibrium with ilmenite series granitic rocks. Oxygen isotope ratios (δ¹⁸O) of the Takatori ore-forming fluid range from +10‰ to +8‰. The δ¹⁸O values of the fluid decreased with decreasing temperature probably because the fluid was mixed with surrounding pore water and meteoric water. The formation pressure for the Takatori deposit is calculated to be 160 MPa on the basis of the difference between the pressure-independent oxygen isotope equilibrium temperature and pressure-dependent homogenization fluid inclusions temperature. The ore-formation depth is calculated to be around 6 km. These lines of evidence suggest that a granitic magma beneath the deposit played a crucial role in the Takatori deposit formation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mineralogy, Geochemistry and Geochronology of W-Sn Polymetallic Deposits)

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27 pages, 9246 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Tungsten Ores of the Dzhida W-Mo Ore Field (Southwestern Transbaikalia, Russia): Mineral Composition and Physical-Chemical Conditions of Formation

by Ludmila B. Damdinova and Bulat B. Damdinov

Minerals 2021, 11(7), 725; https://doi.org/10.3390/min11070725 - 5 Jul 2021

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 3013

Abstract

This article discusses the peculiarities of mineral composition and a fluid inclusions (FIs further in the text) study of the Kholtoson W and Inkur W deposits located within the Dzhida W-Mo ore field (Southwestern Transbaikalia, Russia). The Mo mineralization spatially coincides with the [...] Read more.

This article discusses the peculiarities of mineral composition and a fluid inclusions (FIs further in the text) study of the Kholtoson W and Inkur W deposits located within the Dzhida W-Mo ore field (Southwestern Transbaikalia, Russia). The Mo mineralization spatially coincides with the apical part of the Pervomaisky stock (Pervomaisky deposit), and the W mineralization forms numerous quartz veins in the western part of the ore field (Kholtoson vein deposit) and the stockwork in the central part (Inkur stockwork deposit). The ore mineral composition is similar at both deposits. Quartz is the main gangue mineral; there are also present muscovite, K-feldspar, and carbonates. The main ore mineral of both deposits is hubnerite. In addition to hubnerite, at both deposits, more than 20 mineral species were identified; they include sulfides (pyrite, chalcopyrite, galena, sphalerite, bornite, etc.), sulfosalts (tetrahedrite, aikinite, stannite, etc.), oxides (scheelite, cassiterite), and tellurides (hessite). The results of mineralogical and fluid inclusions studies allowed us to conclude that the Inkur W and the Kholtoson W deposits were formed by the same hydrothermal fluids, related to the same ore-forming system. For both deposits, the fluid inclusion homogenization temperatures varied within the range ~195–344 °C. The presence of cogenetic liquid- and vapor-dominated inclusions in the quartz from the ores of the Kholtoson deposit allowed us to estimate the true temperature range of mineral formation as 413–350 °C. Ore deposition occurred under similar physical-chemical conditions, differing only in pressures of mineral formation. The main factors of hubnerite deposition from hydrothermal fluids were decreases in temperature. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mineralogy, Geochemistry and Geochronology of W-Sn Polymetallic Deposits)

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15 pages, 3367 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Genesis of the Yingzuihongshan Tungsten Deposit, Western Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region, North China: Constraints from In Situ Trace Elements Analyses of Scheelite

by Guoqiang Wang, Xiangmin Li, Dongliang Zhang, Jiyuan Yu and Yujie Liu

Minerals 2021, 11(5), 510; https://doi.org/10.3390/min11050510 - 11 May 2021

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2434

Abstract

In situ analyses of trace elements and rare-earth elements (REEs) were performed by use of laser ablation-inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry (LA-ICP-MS) on scheelite samples from the Yingzuihongshan tungsten deposit in western Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region, China. The contents of trace elements Nb, Ta [...] Read more.

In situ analyses of trace elements and rare-earth elements (REEs) were performed by use of laser ablation-inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry (LA-ICP-MS) on scheelite samples from the Yingzuihongshan tungsten deposit in western Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region, China. The contents of trace elements Nb, Ta and Mo of scheelite indicate that the ore-forming fluid is magmatic hydrotherm and is exsolved from highly fractionated granitic melt. The scheelite has high REE contents and ∑REE values, and a very inhomogeneous distribution of REEs exists in different scheelite grains or even in one scheelite grain. The cathodoluminescence (CL) images of scheelite grains display well-developed zoning or fine oscillatory zoning. Development of zoning is closely related to the variable contents of REEs, and the darkness of shade of CL images are mainly determined by ∑REE values, but they have no correlation with the distribution patterns of REEs. The chondrite-normalized REE distribution patterns of scheelite are classified as the middle REEs (MREEs)-enriched type, except for a strong negative Eu-anomaly, which could be a REE-flat type and or a MREEs-depleted type. Trace element composition of scheelites from the Yinzuihongshan tungsten deposit reflect that the ore-forming materials mainly came from the crust and the ore-forming fluids are dominantly derived from the granitic magma in an oxidizing environment, in which very dynamic conditions of the hydrothermal system prevailed during precipitation of scheelite. On the basis of the above understanding and field geological featured, we considered that the Yingzuihongshan tungsten deposit is the quartz-vein-hosted tungsten type that is genetically associated with monzonitic granite. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mineralogy, Geochemistry and Geochronology of W-Sn Polymetallic Deposits)

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19 pages, 24741 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Genesis of Dulong Sn-Zn-In Polymetallic Deposit in Yunnan Province, South China: Insights from Cassiterite U-Pb Ages and Trace Element Compositions

by Shiyu Liu, Yuping Liu, Lin Ye, Chen Wei, Yi Cai and Weihong Chen

Minerals 2021, 11(2), 199; https://doi.org/10.3390/min11020199 - 13 Feb 2021

Cited by 18 | Viewed by 3801

Abstract

The Dulong Sn-Zn-In polymetallic deposit in the Yunnan province, SW China, hosts a reserve of 5.0 Mt Zn, 0.4 Mt Sn, and 7 Kt In. It is one of the most important polymetallic tin ore districts in China. Granites at Dulong mining area [...] Read more.

The Dulong Sn-Zn-In polymetallic deposit in the Yunnan province, SW China, hosts a reserve of 5.0 Mt Zn, 0.4 Mt Sn, and 7 Kt In. It is one of the most important polymetallic tin ore districts in China. Granites at Dulong mining area include mainly the Laojunshan granite (third phase), which occurs as quartz porphyry or granite porphyry dikes in the Southern edge of the Laojunshan intrusive complex. Granites of phases one and two are intersected at drill holes at depth. There are three types of cassiterite mineralization developed in the deposit: cassiterite-magnetite ± sulfide ore (Cst I), cassiterite-sulfide ore (Cst II) within the proximal skarn in contact with the concealed granite (granites of phases one to two and three), and cassiterite-quartz vein ore (Cst III) near porphyritic granite. Field geology and petrographic studies indicate that acid neutralising muscovitization and pyroxene reactions were part of mechanisms for Sn precipitation resulting from fluid-rock interaction. In situ U–Pb dating of cassiterite samples from the ore stages of cassiterite-sulfide (Cst II) and Cassiterite-quartz vein (Cst III) yielded Tera-Wasserburg U–Pb lower intercept ages of 88.5 ± 2.1 Ma and 82.1 ± 6.3 Ma, respectively. The two mineralization ages are consistent with the emplacement age of the Laojunshan granite (75.9–92.9 Ma) within error, suggesting a close temporal link between Sn-Zn(-In) mineralization and granitic magmatism. LA-ICPMS trace element study of cassiterite indicates that tetravalent elements (such as Zr, Hf, Ti, U, W) are incorporated in cassiterite by direct substitution, and the trivalent element (Fe) is replaced by coupled substitution. CL image shows that the fluorescence signal of Cst I–II is greater than that of Cst III, which is caused by differences in contents of activating luminescence elements (Al, Ti, W, etc.) and quenching luminescence element (Fe). Elevated W and Fe but lowered Zr, Hf, Nb, and Ta concentrations of the three type cassiterites from the Dulong Sn-Zn-In polymetallic deposit are distinctly different from those of cassiterites in VMS/SEDEX tin deposits, but similar to those from granite-related tin deposits. From cassiterite-magnetite ± sulfide (Cst I), cassiterite-sulfide ore (Cst II), to cassiterite-quartz vein ore-stage (Cst III), high field strength elements (HFSEs: Zr, Nb, Ta, Hf) decrease. This fact combined with cassiterite crystallization ages, indicates that Cst I–II mainly related to concealed granite (Laojunshan granites of phases one and two) while Cst III is mainly related to porphyritic granite (Laojunshan granites of phase three). Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mineralogy, Geochemistry and Geochronology of W-Sn Polymetallic Deposits)

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