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Current Emerging Trends of Extraction and Encapsulation in Food

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A special issue of Molecules (ISSN 1420-3049). This special issue belongs to the section "Food Chemistry".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: 31 May 2025 | Viewed by 14304

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Special Issue Editors

Dr. Seyed Mohammad Taghi Gharibzahedi

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Institute of Materials Science, Faculty of Engineering, Kiel University, 24143 Kiel, Germany
Interests: extraction; bio-functional materials; innovative nonthermal technologies; emulsification; colloids; encapsulation; food fortification; biopolymer; 3D‐printed biomaterials; novel foods
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Prof. Dr. Zeynep Altintas

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Guest Editor

Institute of Materials Science, Faculty of Engineering, Kiel University, 24143 Kiel, Germany
Interests: bio-inspired materials; biosensors; biomedical engineering; molecularly imprinted polymers; molecular modelling; encapsulation; bioactive compounds
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Dr. Shahin Roohinejad

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Guest Editor

Department of Food Science and Nutrition, University of Minnesota, St. Paul, MN 55108, USA
Interests: innovative food processing technologies; food functionality; food quality; encapsulation techniques; extraction; storage

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

There has been a growing interest in designing novel methodologies to extract and encapsulate bioactive compounds for developing therapeutic agents and functional foods owing to consumer concerns about the safety of synthetic constituents. The applied extraction and encapsulation techniques can greatly affect their process efficiency, physicochemical properties, and biological functions of healthy-functional ingredients and nutraceuticals. The current Special Issue comprises a wide spectrum of scientific topics related to the optimization of operating parameters in extraction and (micro- and nano-) encapsulation processes, the determination of the best formulation to achieve high-efficient bioactive-loaded capsules, the assessment of physicochemical and biological activities of extracts and capsules, kinetic studies, simulated gastrointestinal digestion evaluations, in vivo and in vitro toxicity, bioavailability, and bioaccessibility studies, microscopical and chemical profile analyses, and the appraisal of advanced analytical technologies to detect biomolecules in extracts and capsules during the process and storage such as chromatography and biosensor systems.

Therefore, this Special Issue aims to collect high-quality studies concerning current advances in the novel technologies of extraction and encapsulation of the high number of biologically active molecules to manufacture next-generation eco-friendly and sustainable food products. We cordially invite researchers and experts to participate in this forum to exchange up-to-date findings and innovative ideas related to cutting-edge research in the scientific area of extraction and encapsulation techniques.

Dr. Seyed Mohammad Taghi Gharibzahedi
Prof. Dr. Zeynep Altintas
Dr. Shahin Roohinejad
Guest Editors

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Keywords

encapsulation techniques
extraction processes
bioactive compounds
complex coacervation
nanocarriers
controlled release
storage stability
food applications

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Published Papers (8 papers)

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Research

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51 pages, 8216 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Optimization of Combined Ultrasound and Microwave-Assisted Extraction for Enhanced Bioactive Compounds Recovery from Four Medicinal Plants: Oregano, Rosemary, Hypericum, and Chamomile

by Konstantina Theodora Laina, Christina Drosou, Chrysanthos Stergiopoulos, Panagiota Maria Eleni and Magdalini Krokida

Molecules 2024, 29(23), 5773; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules29235773 - 6 Dec 2024

Viewed by 533

Abstract

This study presents the synergistic application of ultrasound- and microwave-assisted extraction (UAE–MAE) as a novel and efficient method for recovering bioactive compounds from the medicinal plants oregano, rosemary, Hypericum perforatum, and chamomile. Extraction parameters, including microwave (MW) power, ultrasound (US) power, and extraction time, were optimized using the response surface methodology (RSM), with ethanol as the solvent. Extracts were evaluated for total phenolic content (TPC) via the Folin–Ciocalteu method and antioxidant activity (IC50) using the DPPH assay. High-performance liquid chromatography with diode array detection (HPLC–DAD) identified the main bioactive compounds contributing to their antioxidant and therapeutic potential. The optimized UAE–MAE conditions enhanced phenolic recovery and antioxidant potential across all plants. Notably, Hypericum perforatum exhibited the highest TPC (53.7 mg GAE/g) and strongest antioxidant activity (IC50 29.8 mg extract/g) under 200 W MW, 450 W US, and 12 min, yielding 14.5%. Rosemary achieved the highest yield (23.36%) with a TPC of 26.35 mg GAE/g and an IC50 of 40.75 mg extract/g at 200 W MW, 700 W US, and 8 min. Oregano’s optimal conditions (500 W MW, 700 W US, 12 min) produced a TPC of 34.99 mg GAE/g and an IC50 of 50.31 mg extract/g. Chamomile extracts demonstrated lower phenolic content and antioxidant activity but achieved significant yields under 500 W MW, 700 W US, and 5 min. This study highlights UAE–MAE’s superior efficiency, showcasing its potential to maximize phenolic recovery sustainably, making it a promising technique for industrial and therapeutic applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Current Emerging Trends of Extraction and Encapsulation in Food)

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21 pages, 4101 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Microencapsulation of Extracts of Strawberry (Fragaria vesca) By-Products by Spray-Drying Using Individual and Binary/Ternary Blends of Biopolymers

by Yara Bastos, Fernando Rocha and Berta Nogueiro Estevinho

Molecules 2024, 29(19), 4528; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules29194528 - 24 Sep 2024

Viewed by 750

Abstract

Valorization of agricultural and food by-products (agri-food waste) and maximum utilization of this raw material constitute a highly relevant topic worldwide. Agri-food waste contains different types of phytochemical compounds such as polyphenols, that display a set of biological properties, including anti-inflammatory, chemo-preventive, and immune-stimulating effects. In this work, the microencapsulation of strawberry (Fragaria vesca) plant extract was made by spray-drying using individual biopolymers, as well as binary and ternary blends of pectin, alginate, and carrageenan. The microparticle morphologies depended on the formulation used, and they had an average size between 0.01 μm and 16.3 μm considering a volume size distribution. The encapsulation efficiency ranged between 81 and 100%. The kinetic models of Korsmeyer–Peppas (R²: 0.35–0.94) and Baker–Lonsdale (R²: 0.73–1.0) were fitted to the experimental release profiles. In general, the releases followed a “Fickian Diffusion” mechanism, with total release times varying between 100 and 350 (ternary blends) seconds. The microparticles containing only quercetin (one of the main polyphenols in the plant) showed higher antioxidant power compared to the extract and empty particles. Finally, the addition of the different types of microparticles to the gelatine (2.7 mPa.s) and to the aloe vera gel (640 mPa.s) provoked small changes in the viscosity of the final gelatine (2.3 and 3.3 mPa.s) and of the aloe vera gel (621–653 mPa.s). At a visual level, it is possible to conclude that in the gelatine matrix, there was a slight variation in color, while in the aloe vera gel, no changes were registered. In conclusion, these microparticles present promising characteristics for food, nutraceutical, and cosmetic applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Current Emerging Trends of Extraction and Encapsulation in Food)

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12 pages, 3199 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Protection of α-Tocopherol from UV-Induced Degradation by Encapsulation into Zein Nanoparticles

by Sanghoon Kim

Molecules 2024, 29(16), 3911; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules29163911 - 19 Aug 2024

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 794

Abstract

Vitamin E is a fat-soluble vitamin with several forms. Among these, α-tocopherol (TOC) is preferentially absorbed and accumulated in humans. In the body, it acts as an antioxidant, helping to protect cells from the damage caused by free radicals. It is an organic chemical compound that undergoes degradation upon irradiation with UV light. To protect this bioactive chemical compound from UV light degradation, encapsulation was carried out using zein as a shell material. Due to the unique phase diagram of TOC in aqueous ethanol, the encapsulation efficiency was >99%. The size of encapsulated particles was ~300 nm or smaller, and the thickness of the shell wall was ~30 nm. The presented procedure offers the most simple and efficient encapsulation process that yields edible products. The investigation of the irradiation effect of UV on TOC revealed that the encapsulation effectively blocks UV light and prevents TOC from being degraded. The presented procedure offers an instantaneous and highly efficient encapsulation process, which yields edible products. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Current Emerging Trends of Extraction and Encapsulation in Food)

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21 pages, 7798 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Process Optimization of Tinospora cordifolia Extract-Loaded Water in Oil Nanoemulsion Developed by Ultrasound-Assisted Homogenization

by Varisha Anjum, Uday Bagale, Ammar Kadi, Artem Malinin, Irina Potoroko, Amal H. Alharbi, Doaa Sami Khafaga, Marawa AlMetwally, Al-Seyday T. Qenawy, Areefa Anjum and Faraat Ali

Molecules 2024, 29(8), 1797; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules29081797 - 16 Apr 2024

Viewed by 1445

Abstract

Nanoemulsions are gaining interest in a variety of products as a means of integrating easily degradable bioactive compounds, preserving them from oxidation, and increasing their bioavailability. However, preparing stable emulsion compositions with the desired characteristics is a difficult task. The aim of this study was to encapsulate the Tinospora cordifolia aqueous extract (TCAE) into a water in oil (W/O) nanoemulsion and identify its critical process and formulation variables, like oil (27–29.4 mL), the surfactant concentration (0.6–3 mL), and sonication amplitude (40% to 100%), using response surface methodology (RSM). The responses of this formulation were studied with an analysis of the particle size (PS), free fatty acids (FFAs), and encapsulation efficiency (EE). In between, we have studied a fishbone diagram that was used to measure risk and preliminary research. The optimized condition for the formation of a stable nanoemulsion using quality by design was surfactant (2.43 mL), oil concentration (27.61 mL), and sonication amplitude (88.6%), providing a PS of 171.62 nm, FFA content of 0.86 meq/kg oil and viscosity of 0.597 Pa.s for the blank sample compared to the enriched TCAE nanoemulsion with a PS of 243.60 nm, FFA content of 0.27 meq/kg oil and viscosity of 0.22 Pa.s. The EE increases with increasing concentrations of TCAE, from 56.88% to 85.45%. The RSM response demonstrated that both composition variables had a considerable impact on the properties of the W/O nanoemulsion. Furthermore, after the storage time, the enriched TCAE nanoemulsion showed better stability over the blank nanoemulsion, specially the FFAs, and the blank increased from 0.142 to 1.22 meq/kg oil, while TCAE showed 0.266 to 0.82 meq/kg. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Current Emerging Trends of Extraction and Encapsulation in Food)

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15 pages, 6998 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Development of Anthocyanin-Rich Gel Beads from Colored Rice for Encapsulation and In Vitro Gastrointestinal Digestion

by Siriwan Soiklom, Wipada Siri-anusornsak, Krittaya Petchpoung and Wiratchanee Kansandee

Molecules 2024, 29(1), 270; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules29010270 - 4 Jan 2024

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1762

Abstract

Colored rice anthocyanins are water-soluble natural pigments that can be used as an active ingredient in healthy food and pharmaceutical products. However, anthocyanin utilization is limited because of its instability. This work produced anthocyanin-rich gel beads from colored rice using a modified ionotropic gelation technique for encapsulation, and their efficacy was studied in vitro in the gastrointestinal tract. In total, 15 colored rice samples of three types (whole grain rice, ground rice, and ground germinated rice) were screened to identify the highest anthocyanin content. The anthocyanin content of the whole grain rice was significantly (p < 0.05) higher than it was in the ground and ground germinated rice. The sample with the highest anthocyanin content (1062.7 µg/g) was the black glutinous rice grain from Phrae, chosen based on its anthocyanin-rich crude extract. A new formula using a modified ionotropic gelation technique was prepared for the inclusion of the extract in gel beads. The results indicated that the incorporation of oil and wax significantly increased the encapsulation efficiency of the gel beads (% EE value of 85.43%) and improved the bioavailability of the active ingredient. Moreover, after simulated digestion, the release of anthocyanin and total phenolic content occurred more than five times. Scanning electron microscopy revealed that the surface of the gel beads was smooth. Furthermore, the presence of polyphenols and polysaccharides in the gel beads was confirmed using FTIR. The oil-wax-incorporated, anthocyanin-rich gel beads could be implemented for antioxidant delivery into the gastrointestinal tract to further improve healthy food and nutraceutical products. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Current Emerging Trends of Extraction and Encapsulation in Food)

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22 pages, 4931 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effect of Inlet Air Temperature and Quinoa Starch/Gum Arabic Ratio on Nanoencapsulation of Bioactive Compounds from Andean Potato Cultivars by Spray-Drying

by Carlos A. Ligarda-Samanez, David Choque-Quispe, Elibet Moscoso-Moscoso, Lizeth M. Flores Pozo, Betsy S. Ramos-Pacheco, Henry Palomino-Rincón, Rodrigo J. Guzmán Gutiérrez and Diego E. Peralta-Guevara

Molecules 2023, 28(23), 7875; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules28237875 - 30 Nov 2023

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1677

Abstract

Nanoencapsulation of native potato bioactive compounds by spray-drying improves their stability and bioavailability. The joint effect of the inlet temperature and the ratio of the encapsulant (quinoa starch/gum arabic) on the properties of the nanocapsules is unknown. The purpose of this study was to determine the best conditions for the nanoencapsulation of these compounds. The effects of two inlet temperatures (96 and 116 °C) and two ratios of the encapsulant (15 and 25% w/v) were evaluated using a factorial design during the spray-drying of native potato phenolic extracts. During the study, measurements of phenolic compounds, flavonoids, anthocyanins, antioxidant capacity, and various physical and structural properties were carried out. Higher inlet temperatures increased bioactive compounds and antioxidant capacity. However, a higher concentration of the encapsulant caused the dilution of polyphenols and anthocyanins. Instrumental analyses confirmed the effective encapsulation of the nuclei in the wall materials. Both factors, inlet temperature, and the encapsulant ratio, reduced the nanocapsules’ humidity and water activity. Finally, the ideal conditions for the nanoencapsulation of native potato bioactive compounds were determined to be an inlet temperature of 116 °C and an encapsulant ratio of 15% w/v. The nanocapsules obtained show potential for application in the food industry. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Current Emerging Trends of Extraction and Encapsulation in Food)

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Review

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36 pages, 8597 KiB

Open AccessReview

Recent Advances in Dietary Sources, Health Benefits, Emerging Encapsulation Methods, Food Fortification, and New Sensor-Based Monitoring of Vitamin B₁₂: A Critical Review

by Seyed Mohammad Taghi Gharibzahedi, Maryam Moghadam, Jonas Amft, Aysu Tolun, Gauri Hasabnis and Zeynep Altintas

Molecules 2023, 28(22), 7469; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules28227469 - 7 Nov 2023

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 4562

Abstract

In this overview, the latest achievements in dietary origins, absorption mechanism, bioavailability assay, health advantages, cutting-edge encapsulation techniques, fortification approaches, and innovative highly sensitive sensor-based detection methods of vitamin B₁₂ (VB₁₂) were addressed. The cobalt-centered vitamin B is mainly found in animal products, posing challenges for strict vegetarians and vegans. Its bioavailability is highly influenced by intrinsic factor, absorption in the ileum, and liver reabsorption. VB₁₂ mainly contributes to blood cell synthesis, cognitive function, and cardiovascular health, and potentially reduces anemia and optic neuropathy. Microencapsulation techniques improve the stability and controlled release of VB₁₂. Co-microencapsulation of VB₁₂ with other vitamins and bioactive compounds enhances bioavailability and controlled release, providing versatile initiatives for improving bio-functionality. Nanotechnology, including nanovesicles, nanoemulsions, and nanoparticles can enhance the delivery, stability, and bioavailability of VB₁₂ in diverse applications, ranging from antimicrobial agents to skincare and oral insulin delivery. Staple food fortification with encapsulated and free VB₁₂ emerges as a prominent strategy to combat deficiency and promote nutritional value. Biosensing technologies, such as electrochemical and optical biosensors, offer rapid, portable, and sensitive VB₁₂ assessment. Carbon dot-based fluorescent nanosensors, nanocluster-based fluorescent probes, and electrochemical sensors show promise for precise detection, especially in pharmaceutical and biomedical applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Current Emerging Trends of Extraction and Encapsulation in Food)

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17 pages, 1275 KiB

Open AccessReview

A Brief Review on the Electrohydrodynamic Techniques Used to Build Antioxidant Delivery Systems from Natural Sources

by Sílvia Castro Coelho and Berta Nogueiro Estevinho

Molecules 2023, 28(8), 3592; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules28083592 - 20 Apr 2023

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 1697

Abstract

Extracts from plants have been one of the main sources of antioxidants, namely polyphenols. The associated drawbacks, such as instability against environmental factors, low bioavailability, and loss of activity, must be considered during microencapsulation for a better application. Electrohydrodynamic processes have been investigated as promising tools to fabricate crucial vectors to minimize these limitations. The developed microstructures present high potential to encapsulate active compounds and for controlling their release. The fabricated electrospun/electrosprayed structures present different benefits when compared with structures developed by other techniques; they present a high surface-area-to-volume ratio as well as porosity, great materials handling, and scalable production—among other advantages—which make them able to be widely applied in different fields, namely in the food industry. This review presents a summary of the electrohydrodynamic processes, main studies, and their application. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Current Emerging Trends of Extraction and Encapsulation in Food)

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