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Maillard Reaction: Formation of Flavour Compounds
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Maillard Reaction: Formation of Flavour Compounds

A special issue of Molecules (ISSN 1420-3049). This special issue belongs to the section "Flavours and Fragrances".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (31 August 2022) | Viewed by 40568

Special Issue Editors

Prof. Dr. Sylwia Mildner-Szkudlarz

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Institute of Food Technology of Plant Origin, Poznan University of Life Sciences, Poznan, Poland
Interests: food science; food chemistry; food analysis; sensory analysis; functional foods; phenolic compounds
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals
Dr. Małgorzata Majcher

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Faculty of Food Science and Nutrition, Poznań University of Life Sciences, Wojska Polskiego 31, 60-624 Poznan, Poland
Interests: food of plant origin; aroma compounds; GC-olfactometry; sensory analysis
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

The Maillard reaction is overwhelmingly responsible for flavour formation in foods, which occurs during storage, cooking, and heat processing. Mechanistically, the reaction initiated by the condensation of a carbonyl and amino compounds is a series of subsequent and parallel reactions, which can be divided into three stages: the early, advanced and final Maillard reaction steps. All these reactions can occur simultaneously, affected by each other as well as by reaction parameters. Through the Maillard reactions, all of the aroma precursors interact to produce flavour components, which can be divided into three classes of molecules: oxygen-containing (furfurals, furanones, pyranones), nitrogen-containing (pyrazines, oxazoles and oxazolines, pyrroles, pyrrolines), and sulphur-containing compounds (thiazoles and thiazolines, dithiazines, furanthiols and sulphides).

To improve the flavour profile of less-aromatic products, various types of flavouring compounds can be used. However, making the formation of aromatic compounds possible by adding amino-acid–sugar pairs as flavour precursors during heat treatment would serve as a much better option.

Unfortunately, Maillard reaction products with a characteristic odour note can also have a negative impact on the eating quality due to alteration of the flavour attributes. Moreover, through the Schiff base and Amadori products, advanced glycation end products (AGEs) are also formed. Recently, both synthetic compounds and natural plant extracts have been evaluated as AGE inhibitors. Although AGE inhibitors may reduce dietary contents of Maillard-reaction-derived chemical hazards, they may also adversely affect the volatile profiles of the final products.

This Special Issue will cover a wide range of topics related to the Maillard reaction in food including, but not limited to, the approaches—recipe-based and technological—adopted for improving flavour and aroma; the effect of appropriate Maillard reaction precursors on the formation of sensory profile and potent odorants of food products; the effects of dicarbonyl-trapping agents, antioxidants, and reducing agents on the formation of Maillard-type volatiles; and the inhibition of key aroma compounds generated during heat processing via the addition of polyphenols.

Dr. Sylwia Mildner-Szkudlarz
Dr. Małgorzata Majcher
Guest Editors

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Keywords

  • Maillard reaction
  • nonenzymatic browning
  • Maillard-type volatiles
  • AEDA
  • GCO
  • flavour enhancement
  • aroma precursors
  • analytical tools
  • methodological advances
  • aroma inhibition
  • sugar fragments

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Published Papers (5 papers)

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Research

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17 pages, 970 KiB  
Article
Single Origin Coffee Aroma: From Optimized Flavor Protocols and Coffee Customization to Instrumental Volatile Characterization and Chemometrics
by Panagiota Zakidou, Fotini Plati, Anthia Matsakidou, Evdoxia-Maria Varka, Georgios Blekas and Adamantini Paraskevopoulou
Molecules 2021, 26(15), 4609; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules26154609 - 29 Jul 2021
Cited by 46 | Viewed by 8075
Abstract
In this study, the aroma profile of 10 single origin Arabica coffees originating from eight different growing locations, from Central America to Indonesia, was analyzed using Headspace SPME-GC-MS as the analytical method. Their roasting was performed under temperature–time conditions, customized for each sample [...] Read more.
In this study, the aroma profile of 10 single origin Arabica coffees originating from eight different growing locations, from Central America to Indonesia, was analyzed using Headspace SPME-GC-MS as the analytical method. Their roasting was performed under temperature–time conditions, customized for each sample to reach specific sensory brew characteristics in an attempt to underline the customization of roast profiles and implementation of separate roastings followed by subsequent blending as a means to tailor cup quality. A total of 138 volatile compounds were identified in all coffee samples, mainly furan (~24–41%) and pyrazine (~25–39%) derivatives, many of which are recognized as coffee key odorants, while the main formation mechanism was the Maillard reaction. Volatile compounds’ composition data were also chemometrically processed using the HCA Heatmap, PCA and HCA aiming to explore if they meet the expected aroma quality attributes and if they can be an indicator of coffee origin. The desired brew characteristics of the samples were satisfactorily captured from the volatile compounds formed, contributing to the aroma potential of each sample. Furthermore, the volatile compounds presented a strong variation with the applied roasting conditions, meaning lighter roasted samples were efficiently differentiated from darker roasted samples, while roasting degree exceeded the geographical origin of the coffee. The coffee samples were distinguished into two groups, with the first two PCs accounting for 73.66% of the total variation, attributed mainly to the presence of higher quantities of furans and pyrazines, as well as to other chemical classes (e.g., dihydrofuranone and phenol derivatives), while HCA confirmed the above results rendering roasting conditions as the underlying criterion for differentiation. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Maillard Reaction: Formation of Flavour Compounds)
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15 pages, 705 KiB  
Article
Sensory and Chemical Characteristic of Two Insect Species: Tenebrio molitor and Zophobas morio Larvae Affected by Roasting Processes
by Anna K. Żołnierczyk and Antoni Szumny
Molecules 2021, 26(9), 2697; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules26092697 - 4 May 2021
Cited by 24 | Viewed by 4615
Abstract
The volatile compounds from insects (Tenebrio molitor and Zophobas morio larvae) roasted at 160, 180, or 200 °C and fed with potato starch or blue corn flour were isolated by solid-phase microextraction (SPME), and identified by gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC-MS). In the [...] Read more.
The volatile compounds from insects (Tenebrio molitor and Zophobas morio larvae) roasted at 160, 180, or 200 °C and fed with potato starch or blue corn flour were isolated by solid-phase microextraction (SPME), and identified by gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC-MS). In the tested material, 48 volatile compounds were determined. Among them, eight are pyrazines, aroma compounds that are formed in food products during thermal processing due to the Maillard reaction. Eleven of the identified compounds influenced the roast, bread, fat, and burnt aromas that are characteristic for traditional baked dishes (meat, potatoes, bread). Most of them are carbonyl compounds and pyrazines. To confirm the contribution of the most important odorants identified, their odor potential activity values (OAVs) and %OAV were calculated. The highest value was noted for isobuthylpyrazine, responsible for roast aroma (%OAV > 90% for samples roasted at lower temperatures), and 2,5-dimethylpyrazine, responsible for burnt aroma (%OAV > 20% for samples roasted at the highest temperature). According to the study, the type of feed did not significantly affect the results of the sensory analysis of roasted insects. The decisive influence was the roasting temperature. The highest scores were achieved for Tenebrio molitor larvae heat-treated at 160 °C. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Maillard Reaction: Formation of Flavour Compounds)
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10 pages, 548 KiB  
Article
Maillard Reaction Products in Gluten-Free Bread Made from Raw and Roasted Buckwheat Flour
by Maria Barbara Różańska, Aleksander Siger, Artur Szwengiel, Krzysztof Dziedzic and Sylwia Mildner-Szkudlarz
Molecules 2021, 26(5), 1361; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules26051361 - 4 Mar 2021
Cited by 16 | Viewed by 4101
Abstract
The formation of Maillard reaction products (MRPs) in gluten-free bread made from roasted and raw buckwheat flour was examined. The levels of phenolic compounds such as flavonoids (catechin, naringenin, quercetin, rutin, and others) and phenolic acids (like 4-hydroxybenzoic, caffeic, dihydroxybenzoic, ferulic, gallic, syringic, [...] Read more.
The formation of Maillard reaction products (MRPs) in gluten-free bread made from roasted and raw buckwheat flour was examined. The levels of phenolic compounds such as flavonoids (catechin, naringenin, quercetin, rutin, and others) and phenolic acids (like 4-hydroxybenzoic, caffeic, dihydroxybenzoic, ferulic, gallic, syringic, vanillic, and p-coumaric) were measured using reversed-phase ultra-high performance liquid chromatography-electrospray ionization mass spectrometry (RP–UHPLC–ESI-MS). Early and advanced Maillard reaction products were analyzed using HPLC, whereas spectrofluorimetric analysis was used to determine the levels of fluorescent intermediate compounds (FIC). The total levels of phenolic compounds were higher in the case of buckwheat bread prepared from roasted buckwheat flour (156 and 140 µg/g of crumb and crust, respectively). Rutin, gallic acid, and catechin were the most abundant phenolic compounds detected in roasted buckwheat bread. The roasting process resulted in significantly lower radical scavenging capacities (ABTS) of the total phenolics and flavonoids in the buckwheat bread. Taking into consideration these Maillard reaction products, we observed a significant increase in FIC level in roasted buckwheat crumb and crust (at about 40%, and 38%, respectively). At the same time, the Nε-(carboxymethyl)lysine (CML) level did not change in roasted or raw buckwheat bread crumb, though in roasted buckwheat crust the concentration of CML increased by about 21%. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Maillard Reaction: Formation of Flavour Compounds)
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14 pages, 3426 KiB  
Article
The Maillard Reaction as Source of Meat Flavor Compounds in Dry Cured Meat Model Systems under Mild Temperature Conditions
by Lei Li, Carmela Belloch and Mónica Flores
Molecules 2021, 26(1), 223; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules26010223 - 4 Jan 2021
Cited by 30 | Viewed by 6297
Abstract
Flavor is amongst the major personal satisfaction indicators for meat products. The aroma of dry cured meat products is generated under specific conditions such as long ripening periods and mild temperatures. In these conditions, the contribution of Maillard reactions to the generation of [...] Read more.
Flavor is amongst the major personal satisfaction indicators for meat products. The aroma of dry cured meat products is generated under specific conditions such as long ripening periods and mild temperatures. In these conditions, the contribution of Maillard reactions to the generation of the dry cured flavor is unknown. The main purpose of this study was to examine mild curing conditions such as temperature, pH and aw for the generation of volatile compounds responsible for the cured meat aroma in model systems simulating dry fermented sausages. The different conditions were tested in model systems resembling dry fermented sausages at different stages of production. Three conditions of model system, labeled initial (I), 1st drying (1D) and 2nd drying (2D) and containing different concentrations of amino acid and curing additives, as well as different pH and aw values, were incubated at different temperatures. Changes in the profile of the volatile compounds were investigated by solid phase microextraction and gas chromatography mass spectrometry (SPME-GS-MS) as well as the amino acid content. Seventeen volatile compounds were identified and quantified in the model systems. A significant production of branched chain volatile compounds, sulfur, furans, pyrazines and heterocyclic volatile compounds were detected in the model systems. At the drying stages, temperature was the main factor affecting volatile production, followed by amino acid concentration and aw. This research demonstrates that at the mild curing conditions used to produce dry cured meat product volatile compounds are generated via the Maillard reaction from free amino acids. Moreover, in these conditions aw plays an important role promoting formation of flavor compounds. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Maillard Reaction: Formation of Flavour Compounds)
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Review

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21 pages, 578 KiB  
Review
Effect of Microwave Heating on the Acrylamide Formation in Foods
by Joanna Michalak, Marta Czarnowska-Kujawska, Joanna Klepacka and Elżbieta Gujska
Molecules 2020, 25(18), 4140; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules25184140 - 10 Sep 2020
Cited by 68 | Viewed by 14556
Abstract
Acrylamide (AA) is a neurotoxic and carcinogenic substance that has recently been discovered in food. One of the factors affecting its formation is the heat treatment method. This review discusses the microwave heating as one of the methods of thermal food processing and [...] Read more.
Acrylamide (AA) is a neurotoxic and carcinogenic substance that has recently been discovered in food. One of the factors affecting its formation is the heat treatment method. This review discusses the microwave heating as one of the methods of thermal food processing and the influence of microwave radiation on the acrylamide formation in food. In addition, conventional and microwave heating were compared, especially the way they affect the AA formation in food. Available studies demonstrate differences in the mechanisms of microwave and conventional heating. These differences may be beneficial or detrimental depending on different processes. The published studies showed that microwave heating at a high power level can cause greater AA formation in products than conventional food heat treatment. The higher content of acrylamide in microwave-heated foods may be due to differences in its formation during microwave heating and conventional methods. At the same time, short exposure to microwaves (during blanching and thawing) at low power may even limit the formation of acrylamide during the final heat treatment. Considering the possible harmful effects of microwave heating on food quality (e.g., intensive formation of acrylamide), further research in this direction should be carried out. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Maillard Reaction: Formation of Flavour Compounds)
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