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Saffron under New Perspective: From Chemical Characterization to Biomedical Applications
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Saffron under New Perspective: From Chemical Characterization to Biomedical Applications

A special issue of Molecules (ISSN 1420-3049). This special issue belongs to the section "Natural Products Chemistry".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (31 October 2022) | Viewed by 13449

Special Issue Editors

Prof. Dr. Silvia Bisti

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Istituto Nazionale di Biostrutture e Biosistemi, Rome, Italy
Interests: visual science; neuroscience; neurophysiology; retina; photobiomodulation; neurodegeneration; neuroprotection
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals
Dr. Maria Anna Maggi

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
1. Department of Physical and Chemical Sciences, University of L’Aquila, 67100 Coppito, Italy
2. Hortus Novus srl, Via Campo Sportivo 2, 67050 Canistro, Italy
Interests: discriminant analysis; geographical classification; HPLC-DAD; LDA; DoE; saffron; phytochemistry
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Saffron is a spice derived from the flower of Crocus sativus, commonly known as the “saffron crocus”. The vivid crimson stigma and styles, called threads, are collected and dried for use mainly as a seasoning and coloring agent in food. Saffron has long been the world’s costliest spice by weight. Saffron’s taste and iodoform-like or hay-like fragrance result from the phytochemicals picrocrocin and safranal. Saffron’s aroma is often described by connoisseurs as reminiscent of metallic honey with grassy or hay-like notes, while its taste has also been noted as hay-like and sweet. Saffron also contributes a luminous yellow-orange coloring to foods. Saffron is widely used in Persian, Indian, European, and Arab cuisines. Confectioneries and liquors also often include saffron.

Saffron constituents, such as crocins, crocetin, and safranal, have been under preliminary research for their potential to affect mental depression. Saffron has also been studied for its possible beneficial effect on cardiovascular risk factors, such as lipid profile, blood glucose, weight.

This Special Issue aims at collecting papers with the most recent data on saffron studied in different scientific fields: chemistry, biology, biotechnology, molecular biology, and so on, possibly obtained with a multidisciplinary approach. The leading idea is to provide strong evidence of the fundamental correlation between the chemical composition and the function of this spice. Special attention will be focused on the field of human health trying to correlate chemical characteristic with the efficacy in treating a variety of diseases.

Prof. Dr. Silvia Bisti
Dr. Maria Anna Maggi
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Molecules is an international peer-reviewed open access semimonthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2700 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • research neurophysiology
  • retinal circuitry function and dysfunction neuroprotection
  • analytical chemistry
  • saffron
  • crocins
  • HPLC
  • chemiometry

Published Papers (6 papers)

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Research

11 pages, 2485 KiB  
Article
Efficacy of Hydroponically Cultivated Saffron in the Preservation of Retinal Pigment Epithelium
by Mattia Di Paolo, Francesca Corsi, Maria Maggi, Luca Nardi, Silvia Bisti, Ilaria Piano and Claudia Gargini
Molecules 2023, 28(4), 1699; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules28041699 - 10 Feb 2023
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1652
Abstract
Saffron treatment is a broad-spectrum therapy used for several retinal diseases, and its effectiveness depends on a particular molecular composition (REPRON® saffron). Its production requires specific crops and procedures that, together with low yields, make this spice expensive. To reduce costs, the [...] Read more.
Saffron treatment is a broad-spectrum therapy used for several retinal diseases, and its effectiveness depends on a particular molecular composition (REPRON® saffron). Its production requires specific crops and procedures that, together with low yields, make this spice expensive. To reduce costs, the use of hydroponic crops is gradually increasing. In this study, we tested the protective properties of a hydroponic saffron (sH) batch in models of retinal pigmented epithelium (RPE) degeneration. ARPE-19 cells were pretreated with 40 µg/mL saffron and exposed to different types of damage: excess light and retinol (LE + RET) or oxidative stress (H2O2). After analyzing the composition of all saffron types with spectroscopy, we performed cell viability and immunofluorescence analysis for both protocols. We compared the sH results with those of a validated batch of saffron REPRON® (sR) and those of a saffron non-REPRON® (sNR) batch. sH and sR, which we found had the same chemical composition, were more effective than sNR in increasing cell survival and attenuating the morphological changes related to apoptosis. In conclusion, hydroponic culturing is a suitable strategy to produce high-quality saffron to reduce costs and increase the accessibility of this promising treatment for retinal degeneration. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Saffron under New Perspective: From Chemical Characterization to Biomedical Applications)
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9 pages, 1147 KiB  
Article
Saffron Characterization by a Multidisciplinary Approach
by Michele Spinelli, Alessandra Biancolillo, Gennaro Battaglia, Martina Foschi, Angela Amoresano and Maria Anna Maggi
Molecules 2023, 28(1), 42; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules28010042 - 21 Dec 2022
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1675
Abstract
Saffron is a spice obtained from the drying process of the stigmas of the flower Crocus sativus Linnaeus. It is well known that the organoleptic characteristics of this spice are closely linked to the production area and harvesting year. The present work aims [...] Read more.
Saffron is a spice obtained from the drying process of the stigmas of the flower Crocus sativus Linnaeus. It is well known that the organoleptic characteristics of this spice are closely linked to the production area and harvesting year. The present work aims to evaluate whether saffron samples produced in different years and origins present sensibly different crocin profiles. To achieve this goal, 120 saffron samples were harvested between 2016 and 2020 in four different Italian areas. The crocins were analysed, identified, and quantified by high-performance liquid chromatography–electrospray–tandem mass spectrometry (HPLC–ESI–MS/MS) in multiple reaction monitoring mode (MRM). Subsequently, ANOVA–simultaneous component analysis (ASCA) was used to evaluate whether the origin and annuity significantly affected the composition of the crocins. ASCA confirmed the relevance of these effects. Eventually, soft independent modelling by class analogy (SIMCA) models were created for each of the four different origins. Mixtures of saffron from different areas were also prepared to test the robustness of the models. SIMCA provided satisfying results; in fact, models provided 100% sensitivity for three origins (Cascia, Sardinia, and Città della Pieve) on the external test set (48 samples) and 88% (sensitivity on the external test set) for the Spoleto class. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Saffron under New Perspective: From Chemical Characterization to Biomedical Applications)
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15 pages, 3359 KiB  
Article
A Novel FTIR-Based Chemometric Solution for the Assessment of Saffron Adulteration with Non-Fresh Stigmas
by Martina Foschi, Ludovica Tozzi, Francesca Di Donato, Alessandra Biancolillo and Angelo Antonio D’Archivio
Molecules 2023, 28(1), 33; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules28010033 - 21 Dec 2022
Cited by 9 | Viewed by 1526
Abstract
The development of fast, non-destructive, and green methods with adequate sensitivity for saffron authentication has important implications in the quality control of the entire production chain of this precious spice. In this context, the highly suitable sensitivity of a spectroscopic method coupled with [...] Read more.
The development of fast, non-destructive, and green methods with adequate sensitivity for saffron authentication has important implications in the quality control of the entire production chain of this precious spice. In this context, the highly suitable sensitivity of a spectroscopic method coupled with chemometrics was verified. A total number of 334 samples were analyzed using attenuated-total-reflectance Fourier-transform infrared (ATR-FTIR) spectroscopy; the collected spectra were processed by partial-least-squares discriminant analysis (PLS-DA) to evaluate the feasibility of this study for the discrimination between compliant saffron (fresh samples produced in 2020) and saffron samples adulterated with non-fresh stigmas produced in 2018 and 2016. PLS-DA was able to classify the saffron samples in accordance with the aging time and to discriminate fresh samples from the samples adulterated with non-fresh (legally expired) stigmas, achieving 100% of both sensitivity and specificity in external prediction. Moreover, PLS regression was able to predict the adulteration level with sufficient accuracy (the root-mean-square error of prediction was approximately 3–5%). In summary, ATR-FTIR and chemometrics can be employed to highlight the illegal blending of fresh saffron with unsold stocks of expired saffron, which may be a common fraudulent practice not yet considered in the scientific literature. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Saffron under New Perspective: From Chemical Characterization to Biomedical Applications)
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22 pages, 9763 KiB  
Article
Farming for Pharming: Novel Hydroponic Process in Contained Environment for Efficient Pharma-Grade Production of Saffron
by Luca Nardi, Giulio Metelli, Marco Garegnani, Maria Elena Villani, Silvia Massa, Elisabetta Bennici, Raffaele Lamanna, Marcello Catellani, Silvia Bisti, Maria Anna Maggi, Olivia C. Demurtas, Eugenio Benvenuto and Angiola Desiderio
Molecules 2022, 27(24), 8972; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules27248972 - 16 Dec 2022
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2812
Abstract
Soilless cultivation of saffron (Crocus sativus) in a controlled environment represents an interesting alternative to field cultivation, in order to obtain a standardized high-quality product and to optimize yields. In particular, pharma-grade saffron is fundamental for therapeutic applications of this spice, [...] Read more.
Soilless cultivation of saffron (Crocus sativus) in a controlled environment represents an interesting alternative to field cultivation, in order to obtain a standardized high-quality product and to optimize yields. In particular, pharma-grade saffron is fundamental for therapeutic applications of this spice, whose efficacy has been demonstrated in the treatment of macular diseases, such as Age-related Macular Degeneration (AMD). In this work, a hydroponic cultivation system was developed, specifically designed to meet the needs of C. sativus plant. Various cultivation recipes, different in spectrum and intensity of lighting, temperature, photoperiod and irrigation, have been adopted to study their effect on saffron production. The experimentation involved the cultivation of corms from two subsequent farm years, to identify and validate the optimal conditions, both in terms of quantitative yield and as accumulation of bioactive metabolites, with particular reference to crocins and picrocrocin, which define the ‘pharma-grade’ quality of saffron. Through HPLC analysis and chromatography it was possible to identify the cultivation parameters suitable for the production of saffron with neuroprotective properties, evaluated by comparison with an ISO standard and the REPRON® procedure. Furthermore, the biochemical characterization was completed through NMR and high-resolution mass spectrometry analyses of saffron extracts. The whole experimental framework allowed to establish an optimized protocol to produce pharma-grade saffron, allowing up to 3.2 g/m2 harvest (i.e., more than three times higher than field production in optimal conditions), which meets the standards of composition for the therapy of AMD. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Saffron under New Perspective: From Chemical Characterization to Biomedical Applications)
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12 pages, 912 KiB  
Article
Authentication of Iranian Saffron (Crocus sativus) Using Stable Isotopes δ13C and δ2H and Metabolites Quantification
by Benjamin Moras, Camille Pouchieu, David Gaudout, Stéphane Rey, Anthony Anchisi, Xavier Saupin and Patrick Jame
Molecules 2022, 27(20), 6801; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules27206801 - 11 Oct 2022
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1708
Abstract
Saffron is a very high value-added ingredient used in the food supplement market and contains a high level of safranal. Adding synthetic safranal to saffron, which is significantly cheaper, and falsifying the origin of saffron may represent recurrent fraud. Saffron from different countries [...] Read more.
Saffron is a very high value-added ingredient used in the food supplement market and contains a high level of safranal. Adding synthetic safranal to saffron, which is significantly cheaper, and falsifying the origin of saffron may represent recurrent fraud. Saffron from different countries was analyzed to determine the stable isotope ratios δ13C and δ2H from safranal by gas chromatography coupled with isotope-ratio mass spectrometry (GC-C/P-IRMS) and the concentration of saffron metabolites with ultra-high performance liquid chromatography coupled with diode array detector (UHPLC-DAD). The isotopic analysis highlighted a higher ratio of δ2H in synthetic safranal than in natural safranal; the mean values were 36‰ (+/− 40) and −210‰ (+/− 35), respectively. The δ13C between Iranian, Spanish and other saffron was significantly different and represents median values of −28.62‰, −30.12‰ and −30.70‰, respectively. Moreover, linear and quadratic discriminant analyses (LDA and QDA) were computed using the two isotope ratios of safranal and the saffron metabolites. A first QDA showed that trans-crocetin and the δ13C of safranal, picrocrocin, and crocin C3 concentrations clearly differentiated Iranian saffron from other origins. A second model identified δ13C, trans-crocetin, crocin C2, crocin C3, and picrocrocin as good predictors to discriminate saffron samples from Iran, Spain, or other origins, with a total ability score classification matrix of 100% and a prediction matrix of 82.5%. This combined approach may be a useful tool to authenticate the origin of unknown saffron. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Saffron under New Perspective: From Chemical Characterization to Biomedical Applications)
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14 pages, 2682 KiB  
Article
Effective Isolation of Picrocrocin and Crocins from Saffron: From HPTLC to Working Standard Obtaining
by Laurynas Jarukas, Konradas Vitkevicius, Olha Mykhailenko, Ivan Bezruk, Victoriya Georgiyants and Liudas Ivanauskas
Molecules 2022, 27(13), 4286; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules27134286 - 3 Jul 2022
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 3085
Abstract
Saffron is widely cultivated and used as a spice. Recently published data on the chemical composition and pharmacological potential of saffron determine its use in pharmacy and medicine. The proposed high-performance thin-layer chromatography (HPTLC) method allows good separation of 11 analytes. The saffron [...] Read more.
Saffron is widely cultivated and used as a spice. Recently published data on the chemical composition and pharmacological potential of saffron determine its use in pharmacy and medicine. The proposed high-performance thin-layer chromatography (HPTLC) method allows good separation of 11 analytes. The saffron quality (Iran, Ukraine, Spain, Morocco samples) assessment was based on the European Pharmacopoeia monograph and ISO 3632. The HPTLC method for the safranal, crocin, and picrocrocin quantification was proposed and validated. The crocins content in Ukrainian saffron was from 17.80% to 33.25%. Based on qualitative and quantitative assessment results, the saffron sample from Zaporizhzhia (Ukraine) had the highest compounds content and was chosen to obtain the working standards of picrocrocin and crocins (trans-4GG, trans-2G, trans-3Gg) by preparative chromatography. The compounds were isolated from lyophilized extract of saffron using a Symmetry Prep C18 column (300 × 19 mm × 7 µm), and identified by spectroscopic techniques (HPLC-DAD, UPLC-ESI-MS/MS). The purity of crocins and picrocrocin was more than 97%. A novel method proposed to obtain working standards is simple and reproducible for the routine analysis of saffron quality control. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Saffron under New Perspective: From Chemical Characterization to Biomedical Applications)
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