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Nutrition Status, Diet Quality and Well-Being in Vegetarians, Vegans and Omnivores

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A special issue of Nutrients (ISSN 2072-6643). This special issue belongs to the section "Nutrition and Public Health".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (5 November 2023) | Viewed by 29682

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Special Issue Editors

Dr. Fanny Petermann-Rocha

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Guest Editor

1. Centro de Investigación Biomédica, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad Diego Portales, Ejército 233, Santiago, Chile
2. School of Cardiovascular and Metabolic Health, University of Glasgow, Glasgow G12 8RZ, UK
Interests: nutrition; diet; geriatric syndromes; modifiable risk factors; ageing; non-communicable disease

Dr. Frederick Ho

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Guest Editor

Institute of Health & Wellbeing, University of Glasgow, Public Health, 1 Lilybank Gardens, Glasgow G12 8RZ, UK
Interests: cardiovascular epidemiology; early life factors; precision public health
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Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Vegetarianism is a term used to categorise a large group of individuals that exclude meat from their diets. Although several alternative dietary patterns have gained popularity over the last few decades, vegetarianism remains one of the most popular. In fact, in recent decades, the number of individuals following this diet has risen worldwide. With the increasing popularity of vegetarianism and plant-based diets, the heterogeneity of people following this diet also increases. There are numerous reasons why people follow plant-based diets, including health benefits, moral values, eating disorders, social experience, identity, religion, culture, and environmental protection. In this context, are vegetarians a homogeneous group? How are vegetarians’ nutritional status and diet quality compared to omnivores? Are there variations among different types of vegetarians? Do vegetarians have better well-being compared with people eating other types of diets?

We hope these and other important questions can be answered in this Special Issue, which will include manuscripts focusing on nutrition, diet quality, dietary patterns, and/or well-being in observational and experimental studies carried out during any life stage. Ultimately, we hope the content will be useful for clinical practitioners and inspire further innovative research.

Dr. Fanny Petermann-Rocha
Dr. Frederick Ho
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

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Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Nutrients is an international peer-reviewed open access semimonthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2900 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

diet
vegetarians
quality of life
nutritional status
observational studies
randomised control trials

Published Papers (11 papers)

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Editorial

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5 pages, 228 KiB

Open AccessEditorial

Vegetarians: Past, Present, and Future Regarding Their Diet Quality and Nutritional Status

by Fanny Petermann-Rocha and Frederick K. Ho

Nutrients 2023, 15(16), 3587; https://doi.org/10.3390/nu15163587 - 16 Aug 2023

Viewed by 2363

Abstract

The term “vegetarian” usually refers to individuals who exclude meat, fish, poultry and/or their derived products from their diet [...] Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Nutrition Status, Diet Quality and Well-Being in Vegetarians, Vegans and Omnivores)

Research

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13 pages, 651 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Factors Associated with Daily Fruit and Vegetable Intakes among Children Aged 1–5 Years in the United States

by Adi Noiman, Seung Hee Lee, Kristin J. Marks, Mary Ellen Grap, Carrie Dooyema and Heather C. Hamner

Nutrients 2024, 16(5), 751; https://doi.org/10.3390/nu16050751 - 6 Mar 2024

Viewed by 1166

Abstract

To describe child, caregiver, and household characteristics associated with fruit and vegetable intakes among US children aged 1–5 years, we examined fruit and vegetable intakes (less than daily vs. daily) using data from the 2021 National Survey of Children’s Health among children aged 1–5 years. Multiple logistic regression provided adjusted odds ratios for factors associated with (1) daily fruit and (2) daily vegetable intakes. Among children aged 1–5 years, 68% (n = 11,124) consumed fruit daily, and 51% (n = 8292) consumed vegetables daily. Both daily fruit and daily vegetable intake were associated with child age, child race and ethnicity, and frequency of family meals. For example, children who ate a family meal 4–6 days/week (aOR 0.69; 95% CI 0.57, 0.83) or 0–3 days/week (aOR 0.57; 95% CI 0.46, 0.72) were less likely to consume fruit daily compared to children who had a family meal every day. Participation in food assistance programs, food insufficiency, and household income were not significantly associated with odds of daily fruit or daily vegetable intake in the adjusted models. Several factors were associated with daily fruit and vegetable intake among children aged 1–5. Strategies aimed at increasing fruit and vegetable consumption in early childhood may consider these child, caregiver, and household characteristics. Pediatric healthcare providers, early childhood education centers, and families of young children may be important partners in this work. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Nutrition Status, Diet Quality and Well-Being in Vegetarians, Vegans and Omnivores)

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13 pages, 822 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Bone Remodelling, Vitamin D Status, and Lifestyle Factors in Spanish Vegans, Lacto-Ovo Vegetarians, and Omnivores

by Elena García-Maldonado, Angélica Gallego-Narbón, Belén Zapatera, Alexandra Alcorta, Miriam Martínez-Suárez and M. Pilar Vaquero

Nutrients 2024, 16(3), 448; https://doi.org/10.3390/nu16030448 - 2 Feb 2024

Viewed by 1446

Abstract

Sustainable healthy diets are promoted, and consequently vegetarian diets are currently increasing. However, scientific information on their effects on bone health is scarce. A cross-sectional study was performed in adults (66% women) classified into three groups: omnivores (n = 93), lacto-ovo vegetarians (n = 96), and vegans (n = 112). Nutrient intake, body composition, physical activity, vitamin D status (25-hydroxycholecalciferol, 25-OHD), parathormone (PTH), and bone formation (bone alkaline phosphatase, BAP) and resorption (N-telopeptides of type I collagen, NTx) markers were determined. Lacto-ovo vegetarians and especially vegans showed lower protein, fat, calcium, phosphorous, vitamin D, retinol, iodine, and zinc intakes, and higher carbohydrate, fibre, carotenes, magnesium, and vitamin K intakes compared to omnivores. Body composition was similar in the three groups that performed vigorous physical activity regularly. Body bone mass and muscle mass were positively correlated with BAP, and time performing physical activity with 25-OHD. The prevalence of vitamin D deficiency or insufficiency (25-OHD < 75 nmol/L) was 93.7% in the studied population, and vitamin D deficiency (25-OHD < 25 nmol/L) was significantly higher in vegans. Vegetarians of both groups had increased PTH and NTx with vegans showing significantly higher PTH and NTx than omnivores. Conclusion: Adult vegetarians, especially vegans, should reduce the risk of bone loss by appropriate diet planning and vitamin D supplementation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Nutrition Status, Diet Quality and Well-Being in Vegetarians, Vegans and Omnivores)

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15 pages, 295 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Experiences of Vegans with General Practitioners in the Austrian Health Care System: A Qualitative Study

by Elena Jirovsky-Platter, Maria Wakolbinger, Tilman Kühn, Kathryn Hoffmann, Anita Rieder and Sandra Haider

Nutrients 2024, 16(3), 392; https://doi.org/10.3390/nu16030392 - 29 Jan 2024

Viewed by 967

Abstract

This article explores the factors influencing the choice of general practitioners (GPs) and their role in the health care of vegans in Austria. The number of people identifying as vegan is on the rise, and GPs are increasingly confronted with vegan patients. A qualitative method was chosen for this study, and 14 semi-structured interviews with vegans were conducted between April 2022 and July 2022. Participants were recruited primarily through vegan social media groups. In their experiences with health care, vegans felt treated unequally or sometimes incorrectly. The experiences described highlight that participants felt that most GPs were biased against their veganism. Information exchange among vegans primarily takes place online and through publications of vegan associations, while GPs play a minor role in information provision. As the number of vegans grows, an appreciative way of communicating between GPs and vegan patients ought to be promoted. Voluntary interdisciplinary nutritional training, collaboration of the medical field with support organizations, provision of evidence-based information, and collaboration with dietitians and nutritionists could enrich the care of patients with a vegan diet. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Nutrition Status, Diet Quality and Well-Being in Vegetarians, Vegans and Omnivores)

22 pages, 1486 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Adoption of a Short-Term (4-Week) Vegan Diet as Part of ‘Veganuary’ Significantly Reduces Saturated Fatty Acid (SFA), Cholesterol, B12, and Iodine Intake in Omnivorous Individuals—An Observational Study

by Elizabeth Eveleigh, Lisa Coneyworth, Jim Craigon and Simon Welham

Nutrients 2023, 15(23), 4967; https://doi.org/10.3390/nu15234967 - 30 Nov 2023

Viewed by 2641

Abstract

Global veganism campaigns like ‘Veganuary’ have gained popularity. We conducted an observational study to assess the impact of a 4-week vegan diet during ‘Veganuary’ on nutrient intake, status, knowledge, and motivations for veganism. Data were collected before and after ‘Veganuary’, using Food Frequency Questionnaires (FFQs) to estimate dietary intake. Micronutrient knowledge and motivation were assessed through questionnaires. A total of 154 UK adults aged 18–60 years (2019: n81; 2020: n73) participated. Groups were vegetarians and omnivores committed to a 4-week vegan diet during ‘Veganuary’. Control groups were vegans and omnivores who did not transition. Short-term vegan diets significantly decreased intake of iodine, B12, cholesterol, and saturated fatty acids (SFAs) in omnivores. Micronutrient knowledge was low, and motivation for veganism varied. Short-term vegan diets reduce macro- and micronutrient intake in omnivores. Veganuary participants could benefit from nutritional guidance or supplementation. Attention is required for UK micronutrient intake and knowledge. Motivations for vegan pledges may influence diets, warranting further research. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Nutrition Status, Diet Quality and Well-Being in Vegetarians, Vegans and Omnivores)

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11 pages, 1852 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Impact of Plant-Based Diets on Dietary Acid Load Metrics in Venezuela: A Cross-Sectional Study

by Jesús Enrique Ekmeiro-Salvador and Maximilian Andreas Storz

Nutrients 2023, 15(12), 2745; https://doi.org/10.3390/nu15122745 - 14 Jun 2023

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1690

Abstract

Dietary acid load (DAL) is an important determinant of the acid–base balance in humans and has been associated with several chronic non-communicable diseases. Plant-based diets, including vegetarian and vegan diets, decrease DAL—although their alkalizing potential varies substantially. Their net effect on common DAL scores, including potential renal acid load and net endogenous acid production, has been insufficiently quantified and is poorly understood—particularly in populations outside of Europe and North America. We assessed the associations between three plant-based dietary patterns (flexitarian vs. lacto-ovo-vegetarian vs. vegan diet) and DAL scores in a healthy Venezuelan population in the metropolitan area of Puerto La Cruz, Venezuela. Substantial differences in DAL scores were observed, whereby the vegan diet yielded the highest alkalizing potential, followed by the lacto-ovo-vegetarian and the flexitarian diet. DAL scores were substantially lower in comparison to European and North American plant-based populations, probably due to the higher potassium intake (exceeding 4000 mg/d in vegans), the higher magnesium intake (390.31 ± 1.79 mg/d in vegans) and the lower intake of protein in vegans and lacto-ovo-vegetarians. Additional studies in other non-industrialized populations are warranted to allow for a better understanding of the (numeric) impact of plant-based dietary patterns on DAL scores, potentially allowing for an establishment of reference ranges in the near future. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Nutrition Status, Diet Quality and Well-Being in Vegetarians, Vegans and Omnivores)

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13 pages, 569 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Association between Vegan Dietary Patterns and Physical Activity—A Cross-Sectional Online Survey

by Sandra Haider, Alina Sima, Tilman Kühn and Maria Wakolbinger

Nutrients 2023, 15(8), 1847; https://doi.org/10.3390/nu15081847 - 12 Apr 2023

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 5420

Abstract

A balanced diet and sufficient physical activity (PA) are known to have positive health effects. The relationship between a vegan diet and PA levels is understudied. This cross-sectional online survey aimed to analyze whether different vegan dietary patterns differ in PA. In total, 516 vegan participants were included (June to August 2022). Different dietary patterns were compiled through principal component analysis, while group differences were calculated using independent tests, or chi-squared tests as well as logistic regression analyses. The population had an average age of 28.0 (SD: 7.7) years and had been living vegan for 2.6 (95% CI: 2.5–3.0) years. Two dietary patterns, the “convenience” and the “health-conscious” group, were identified. People with a convenience dietary pattern had significantly higher odds of sitting more (OR 1.10, 95% CI 1.04–1.18) and not achieving aerobic PA (OR 1.81, 95% CI 1.18–2.79) or strength training recommendations (OR 1.81, 95% CI 1.26–2.61) than people with a health-conscious dietary pattern. This study suggests the heterogeneity of vegan diets and that dietary patterns must be differentiated, as they also differ in the level of PA. Additional studies involving complete dietary assessment with a focus on ultraprocessed foods, blood metabolite analysis, and objective PA assessment are required. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Nutrition Status, Diet Quality and Well-Being in Vegetarians, Vegans and Omnivores)

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Review

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21 pages, 1260 KiB

Open AccessReview

Plant-Based Diets in Children: Secular Trends, Health Outcomes, and a Roadmap for Urgent Practice Recommendations and Research—A Systematic Review

by Malgorzata A. Desmond, Mary S. Fewtrell and Jonathan C. K. Wells

Nutrients 2024, 16(5), 723; https://doi.org/10.3390/nu16050723 - 1 Mar 2024

Viewed by 3639

Abstract

People are increasingly encouraged to reduce animal food consumption and shift towards plant-based diets; however, the implications for children’s health are unclear. In this narrative review of research in high-income settings, we summarize evidence on the increasing consumption of plant-based diets in children and update an earlier systematic review regarding their associations with children’s health outcomes. The evidence indicates that vegan, but not vegetarian, diets can restrict growth relative to omnivorous children and increase the risk of being stunted and underweight, although the percentage affected is relatively small. Bone mineral content is reduced in vegetarian and, in particular, vegan children, compared to omnivores. Both vegetarian and vegan children who do not use vitamin B12 supplements manifest with B12 deficiency; however, supplementation rectifies this problem. Both vegetarians and vegans have lower concentrations of 25(OH)D if unsupplemented, and lower body iron stores, but usually have normal iron metabolism markers. Both groups are at risk of iodine deficiency, and this might affect thyroid health. Children consuming a vegan diet have a more favorable lipid profile than omnivorous children; however, the results for a vegetarian diet are inconsistent and vary by outcome. Based on the same scientific evidence, national and international dietary recommendations are heterogeneous, with some countries supporting plant-based diets among infants, children, and adolescents, and others discouraging them. We offer a research roadmap, highlighting what is needed to provide adequate evidence to harmonize dietary recommendations for plant-based diets in children. A number of measures should urgently be introduced at international and national levels to improve the safety of their use in children. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Nutrition Status, Diet Quality and Well-Being in Vegetarians, Vegans and Omnivores)

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28 pages, 683 KiB

Open AccessReview

Vegan Diets for Children: A Narrative Review of Position Papers Published by Relevant Associations

by Boštjan Jakše, Zlatko Fras and Nataša Fidler Mis

Nutrients 2023, 15(22), 4715; https://doi.org/10.3390/nu15224715 - 7 Nov 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 5452

Abstract

The scientific discourse on vegan diets for children and adolescents primarily involves referencing position statement papers from different scientific and professional organizations, including paediatric associations. Over the past two decades, specialized associations have issued official statements and published position papers about adopting well-designed vegan diets during crucial life stages, including pregnancy and lactation, infancy, and childhood. A subset of these associations firmly supports the notion that a well-designed vegan diet can indeed be healthy and support normal growth and development during particularly delicate life stages, emphasizing careful planning, vitamin B12 supplementation, and regular supervised medical and dietetics oversight. In contrast, specific paediatric associations caution against vegan diets for children and adolescents, citing potential harm and the lack of adequate substantiation. These criticisms in position papers frequently point to lower-quality studies and/or outdated studies. Additionally, concerns extend to comparing vegan and omnivorous diets, considering public health issues such as obesity and early stages of cardiovascular disease as well as the risk of prediabetes and type 2 diabetes. Notably, some scepticism stems from studies where children’s adherence to a well-designed vegan diet is incomplete. Scientific rigor suggests performing a comparable assessment of omnivorous and vegan diets. This narrative review highlights the need for a comprehensive, up-to-date literature review to inform balanced perspectives on vegan diets for children and adolescents. Researchers and decision-makers should aim to actively improve the design and consistent implementation of both diet types. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Nutrition Status, Diet Quality and Well-Being in Vegetarians, Vegans and Omnivores)

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Other

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13 pages, 961 KiB

Open AccessProtocol

Plant-Based Dietary Patterns and Cardiovascular Disease Risk in Australians: Protocol for a Cross-Sectional Study

by Jessica J. A. Ferguson, Grace Austin, Christopher Oldmeadow and Manohar L. Garg

Nutrients 2023, 15(13), 2850; https://doi.org/10.3390/nu15132850 - 23 Jun 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2055

Abstract

Plant-based diets (PBDs) emphasise higher intakes of plant foods and lower intakes of animal foods, and they have been associated with reduced cardiovascular morbidity/mortality and lower cardiovascular disease (CVD) risk factors. Evidence is limited regarding the dietary profile, diet quality, and nutritional adequacy of PBDs, including their impact on CVD risk compared with traditional meat-eating diets in Australians. The PBD Study (PBDS) is a cross-sectional study that will recruit 240 adults from the Hunter region (NSW) without known CVD who are habitually consuming vegan (no animal flesh/animal products), lacto-ovo vegetarian (dairy and/or eggs only), pesco-vegetarian (fish/seafood only), or semi-vegetarian (minimal animal flesh) diets or are a regular meat-eater. To investigate dietary profile, diet quality, nutritional adequacy, and CVD risk, questionnaires (medical history, demographics, and physical activity), blood samples (biomarkers), physical measures (anthropometry, blood pressure, body composition, and bone density), and dietary intake (food frequency questionnaire and diet history) will be collected. One-way ANOVA and Kruskal–Wallis tests will compare the CVD risk and other quantitative measures, and Chi-square or Fisher’s Exact tests will be used for qualitative data. Directed acyclic graphs will determine the confounding variables, and linear regression and mediation analyses will account for the confounders and estimate the effect of dietary patterns on CVD risk. p-values will be adjusted using the Benjamini–Hochberg method to control the False Discovery Rate to 5%. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Nutrition Status, Diet Quality and Well-Being in Vegetarians, Vegans and Omnivores)

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25 pages, 1970 KiB

Open AccessSystematic Review

Systematic Review of Reflection Spectroscopy-Based Skin Carotenoid Assessment in Children

by Saima Hasnin, Dipti A. Dev, Taren Swindle, Susan B. Sisson, Stephanie Jilcott Pitts, Tirna Purkait, Shari C. Clifton, Jocelyn Dixon and Virginia C. Stage

Nutrients 2023, 15(6), 1315; https://doi.org/10.3390/nu15061315 - 7 Mar 2023

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1900

Abstract

Assessing children’s skin carotenoid score (SCS) using reflection spectroscopy (RS) is a non-invasive, widely used method to approximate fruit and vegetable consumption (FVC). The aims for the current review were to (1) identify distributions of SCS across demographic groups, (2) identify potential non-dietary correlates for RS-based SCS, (3) summarize the validity and reliability of RS-based SCS assessment, and (4) conduct meta-analyses of studies examining the correlation between RS-based SCS with FVC. A literature search in eight databases in June 2021 resulted in 4880 citations and peer-reviewed publications written in English that investigated children’s (2–10 years old) SCS using RS. We included 11 studies (intervention = 3, observational = 8). Potential covariates included weight status, ethnicity, seasonal variation, age, sex, and income. Studies reported criterion validity with children’s FVC but not with plasma carotenoid. Additionally, no studies reported the reliability of RS-based SCS in children. Among the 726 children included in the meta-analysis, the correlation between RS-based SCS and FVC was r = 0.2 (p < 0.0001). RS-based SCS is a valid method to quantify skin carotenoids for children’s FVC estimation with the potential for evaluating nutrition policies and interventions. However, future research should use standardized protocol for using RS and establish how RS-based SCS can translate to the amount of daily FVC in children. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Nutrition Status, Diet Quality and Well-Being in Vegetarians, Vegans and Omnivores)

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