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Flora and Vegetation in Cities: Basic and Applied Scientific Knowledge for Environmental Sustainability

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A special issue of Plants (ISSN 2223-7747). This special issue belongs to the section "Plant Ecology".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: 30 June 2025 | Viewed by 12092

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Dr. Giulia Capotorti

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Department of Environmental Biology, Sapienza University of Rome, Piazzale Aldo Moro 5, 00185 Rome, RM, Italy
Interests: ecosystem mapping and assessment; ecological classification of land; vegetation dynamics; urban and peri-urban plant diversity; rural landscapes; biodiversity conservation; sustainable land planning
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Dr. Duilio Iamonico

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Department of Environmental Biology, Sapienza University of Rome, Piazzale Aldo Moro 5, 00185 Rome, RM, Italy
Interests: taxonomy and nomenclature of several plant groups, mainly: Amaranthaceae juss., Asteraceae bercht. & J. presl, Caryphyllaceae juss., Chenopodiaceae vent, Cactaceae juss., Malvaceae juss., Plumbaginaceae juss.; flora, plant sociology, landscape ecology and cartography of the Mediterranean area
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Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Urbanization has been increasing across the globe over recent years, and urban development and expansion have caused many adverse effects on biodiversity as well as on the ecosystem services it provides, especially where most of humanity currently lives. Urban biodiversity studies, which have increased steadily during the last 30 years, represent a crucial aspect for sustainable city planning all over the world.

Threats to urban biodiversity are related to biological invasions, landscape fragmentation, the reduction in natural vegetation cover, habitat loss, pollution, and other adverse effects due to the density of population, artificial areas, and infrastructure. Accordingly, basic knowledge on urban biodiversity and the definition of nature-based solutions to reduce the impact of human activities have become essential to bring nature back into cities and increase the health and well-being of billions of people.

This Special Issue is open to original research articles and reviews focused on the basic and applied knowledge of urban and suburban flora and vegetation. Contributions dealing with interactions between plants and other biotic and abiotic components of ecosystems are also welcome.

Dr. Giulia Capotorti
Dr. Duilio Iamonico
Guest Editors

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Keywords

anthropic disturbance
databases
flora
land use
restoration
vegetation
urban biodiversity conservation；

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Published Papers (11 papers)

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Research

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16 pages, 2926 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Floristic Inventory and Diversity of Urban Green Spaces in the Municipality of Assemini (Sardinia, Italy)

by Marco Sarigu, Lina Podda, Giacomo Calvia, Andrea Lallai and Gianluigi Bacchetta

Plants 2025, 14(7), 1102; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants14071102 - 2 Apr 2025

Viewed by 378

Abstract

Urban greenery is a key component of green infrastructure, contributing to environmental sustainability and urban well-being. Between 2019 and 2020, a comprehensive inventory of ornamental flora was conducted in Assemini (Sardinia, Italy), documenting 198 vascular plant taxa, including 155 exotic, 41 native, and 2 cryptogenic species from 65 families. Among the exotic species, most were neophytes (63%), and 14% were archaeophytes. In terms of life forms, scapose phanerophytes, with a tree-like growth habit, dominated (45%), while Mediterranean and American chorotypes were the most represented, each accounting for 21%. A total of 7356 plants were recorded, comprising trees (61.3%), shrubs (32.3%), and climbers (5.7%), belonging to 90 shrub, 89 tree, and 19 climber taxa. The highest number of plants was found in “Green Areas” and “Schools”, which also exhibited the greatest biodiversity, with 136 different taxa each. The most planted species were Quercus ilex, Nerium oleander, and Olea europaea. The survey also identified 21 allergenic, 36 toxic, and 35 mechanically harmful species, primarily located in “Green Areas” and “Schools”. Biodiversity analysis using the Shannon Index revealed significant diversity, with Fabaceae, Apocynaceae, and Fagaceae emerging as the most represented families. These findings highlight the importance of plant inventories in urban green space management for sustainable planning. Well-maintained green spaces can enhance ecological resilience, improve public health, and promote social cohesion in future urban developments. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Flora and Vegetation in Cities: Basic and Applied Scientific Knowledge for Environmental Sustainability)

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22 pages, 4846 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Plant Landscape of the “Conca d’Oro” of Palermo (NW Sicily, Italy) and Its Evolution

by Gianniantonio Domina, Giulio Barone, Enrico Bajona, Emilio Di Gristina, Giuseppe Venturella and Raimondo Pardi

Plants 2025, 14(6), 938; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants14060938 - 17 Mar 2025

Viewed by 328

Abstract

The Conca d’Oro of Palermo, a plain in NW Sicily of significant historical and agricultural importance, has undergone significant landscape alterations due to agricultural strengthening and urbanization. This paper analyses the evolution of the plant landscape from early human settlements to the present by integrating historical records, cartographic analysis, and floristic surveys. Three key periods of change were identified: Roman-era deforestation for cereal cultivation, the expansion of irrigated agriculture under Arab rule, and the dominance of citrus monoculture in the 19th century. Post-World War II urban expansion led to the loss of agricultural land and natural habitats, particularly wetlands and coastal dunes. Spatial analysis revealed a drastic reduction in semi-natural areas, with agricultural land giving way to urban sprawl. Floristic studies showed the persistence of endemic plant species in fragmented natural habitats alongside the local extinction of wetlands and coastal vegetation. The Oreto River, a river with a basin that extends into the territories of the municipalities of Altofonte, Monreale, and Palermo, remains a critical biodiversity reservoir, and most other natural ecosystems have been degraded. This research provides insights into the long-term interactions between human activities and biodiversity and offers a foundation for sustainable conservation strategies in Mediterranean urban and peri-urban environments. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Flora and Vegetation in Cities: Basic and Applied Scientific Knowledge for Environmental Sustainability)

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19 pages, 32675 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Plant Diversity and Sustainable Landscape Management: The Case of Misiliscemi, a New Municipality in Sicily

by Michele Aleo and Giuseppe Bazan

Plants 2025, 14(4), 548; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants14040548 - 10 Feb 2025

Viewed by 813

Abstract

Floristic and biodiversity knowledge play a crucial role in ecosystem conservation and sustainable land management, particularly in urban-rural contexts that can serve as biodiversity reservoirs, hosting species of high biogeographic value. Focusing on the new municipality of Misiliscemi, established in 2021 in Sicily and now facing the challenge of developing new management strategies, this study provides fundamental knowledge on the plant biodiversity of the area and explores how the integration of floristic and environmental data can guide territorial planning strategies aimed at preserving natural capital and ecosystem services. The research, based on field surveys conducted over many years, taxonomic identification of species, analysis of biological forms and chorological data, evaluation of ecological indicators, and GIS-based habitat mapping according to the EUNIS classification, has made it possible to obtain a comprehensive dataset. The results of this work led to the identification of 623 taxa, recording new findings for the Sicilian flora, including both native and alien species, which represent primary biodiversity data crucial for plant resource management. In addition, 42 habitat types were mapped, highlighting that approximately 80% of the territory is occupied by vegetated man-made habitats. Despite anthropogenic pressures and landscape modifications, Misiliscemi retains significant plant biodiversity, including habitats and species of conservation interest, that represent a vital resource for natural capital and ecosystem services. This knowledge base, in addition to constituting the scientific foundation upon which this young municipality can develop an urban planning strategy aimed at achieving sustainable local development, also represents a methodological approach that highlights how basic knowledge of urban biodiversity should be considered a crucial aspect of sustainable urban planning worldwide. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Flora and Vegetation in Cities: Basic and Applied Scientific Knowledge for Environmental Sustainability)

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37 pages, 5913 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Urban Flora Biodiversity of Some Continental Cities of the Po Plain (Emilia-Romagna, Northern Italy)

by Alessandro Alessandrini, Michele Adorni, Fabrizio Buldrini, Sergio Montanari, Villiam Morelli, Mauro Pellizzari, Maurizio Sirotti and Giovanna Bosi

Plants 2025, 14(3), 450; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants14030450 - 3 Feb 2025

Viewed by 862

Abstract

Urban flora is a more and more interesting research subject, in light of the ongoing environmental change and biological homogenisation, since urban contexts are much more diversified that natural ones and, therefore, they offer much more colonisation possibilities to allochthonous species or unexpected refuges for endangered species. We have, therefore, added our own contribution by analysing the spontaneous vascular flora of 7 cities of the Emilia-Romagna Po Plain (northern Italy), one of the more culturally and economically developed areas in Europe. The global floristic list was 1305 species, spanning from 432 to 756 species in each individual city; 219 of them were constantly present in all cities examined. A notable richness in phytosociological classes (43 out of 75 known for the entire national territory) was observed. Therophytes were 35.4% of the spectrum, followed by hemicryptophytes, phanerophytes and geophytes. Eurasian and Mediterranean species dominated (average values 30 and 27%, respectively); exotic species were 26.8%, in line with the strong floristic pollution of Emilia-Romagna, with neophytes always prevailing over archaeophytes. Among neophytes, 44.8% came from the Americas and 26.2% from Asia. Some hydro-hygrophilous and halophilous species were found, owing to the presence of watercourses crossing the urban areas and coastal wetlands bordering one of the towns. The species new for the flora of Italy or Emilia-Romagna were 32, of which 24 were allochthonous. The species protected at a regional or national level were hardly present, which is normal in artificial environments. Despite the inevitable differences in exploration intensity and effort, this synthesis offers a picture of the contribution given by anthropogenic habitats to the global biological richness of the territory. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Flora and Vegetation in Cities: Basic and Applied Scientific Knowledge for Environmental Sustainability)

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12 pages, 1708 KiB

Open AccessCommunication

The Vascular Flora of Pisa (Tuscany, Central Italy)

by Lorenzo Peruzzi, Brunello Pierini, Iduna Arduini, Gianni Bedini and Jacopo Franzoni

Plants 2025, 14(3), 307; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants14030307 - 21 Jan 2025

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1760

Abstract

We present the first vascular flora of the municipality of Pisa. The floristic inventory was built on previous literature and field observations deposited in the online database Wikiplantbase #Toscana, integrated by observations from iNaturalist. The established flora of Pisa includes a total of 1404 specific and subspecific taxa (594 genera, 123 families), out of which 112 are alien species. Silene subconica is excluded from the regional flora of Tuscany, while Solanum nitidibaccatum is reported as a new regional casual alien, and the regional alien status of Salpichroa origanifolia shifts from naturalized to invasive. Native taxa exceed species-area predictions by 33.3%, attesting for a high floristic richness, and there are taxa of high biogeographical and conservation interest. However, also alien taxa exceed predictions by 34.9%, and there are many invasive species, pointing out a high anthropogenic impact in the territory of Pisa, mostly due to urbanization. The biological and chorological spectra reflect the coexistence of typical Mediterranean and central European habitats in this territory, especially within the Migliarino–San Rossore–Massaciuccoli Regional Park. The vascular flora of the municipality is quite rich, although threatened by anthropic pressures, fostering the arrival and establishment of invasive alien species. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Flora and Vegetation in Cities: Basic and Applied Scientific Knowledge for Environmental Sustainability)

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22 pages, 8042 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Quercus cerris Leaf Functional Traits to Assess Urban Forest Health Status for Expeditious Analysis in a Mediterranean European Context

by Luca Quaranta, Piera Di Marzio and Paola Fortini

Plants 2025, 14(2), 285; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants14020285 - 20 Jan 2025

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 919

Abstract

In the Mediterranean basin, urban forests are widely recognized as essential landscape components, playing a key role in nature-based solutions by enhancing environmental quality and providing a range of ecosystem services. The selection of woody plant species for afforestation and reforestation should prioritize native species that align with the biogeographical and ecological characteristics of the planting sites. Among these, Quercus cerris L. (Turkey oak) is considered a promising candidate for urban reforestation. However, its fitness within urban forest environments remains poorly understood. This study aimed to identify suitable leaf functional traits for assessing the response of Q. cerris in urban forests and to analyze the main climatic variables influencing its performance in urban contexts. We also proposed practical, rapid monitoring tools to compare urban and natural forests across different seasons. The results demonstrated that Q. cerris experiences significant water stress in urban forests due to the combined effects of drought and high temperatures. To find the tools to mitigate this stress, the differences between leaf traits such as specific leaf area, thickness, and the contents of chlorophyll, anthocyanins, and flavonols in urban and natural forests were analyzed. Our findings underscore the high adaptability of Q. cerris to varied climatic and environmental conditions. This study provides a practical method for rapidly assessing the responses of tree species to climate change. In the future, this approach will be tested on other native species that are characteristic of Mediterranean forest ecosystems to help with choosing afforestation and reforestation strategies. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Flora and Vegetation in Cities: Basic and Applied Scientific Knowledge for Environmental Sustainability)

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15 pages, 4595 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Anthropogenic Drivers of Small-Island Effects in Urban Remnant Woody Plants

by Di Kong, Kai Wang, Lin Dong, Jinming Yang, Zhiwen Gao and Hong Liang

Plants 2024, 13(24), 3522; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants13243522 - 17 Dec 2024

Viewed by 1676

Abstract

The positive relationship between species richness and area is a fundamental principle in ecology. However, this pattern deviates on small islands, where species richness either changes independently of area or increases at a slower rate—a phenomenon known as the Small-Island Effect (SIE). While the SIE has been well documented in natural ecosystem, its presence in highly fragmented and disturbed urban ecosystem remains unexplored, posing challenges for urban vegetation conservation. Urban remnant vegetation, isolated by surrounding infrastructures, preserves intact zonal vegetation characteristics, serves as a benchmark for restoring near-natural habitats and offers ideal conditions to test the existence of the SIE in urban area landscapes. In this study, we surveyed 17 remnant vegetation patches in Qingdao City, China. A total of 331 plants attributed to 255 genera in 81 families have been recorded. Firstly, by using six species–area relationship regression models testing the SIE for remnant vegetation with different plant life forms, we found the SIE in only woody plants, with the land surface area threshold ranging from 6.38 ha (tree) to 11.91 ha (shrub). Our finding revealed that the drivers of the SIE in shrubs were landscape shape index, perimeter–area ratio, and the proportion of sealed surfaces within the patch. For trees, the SIE was influenced by the distance to the source of species, GDP, night light intensity, and perimeter–area ratio. This finding justifies that conservation in urban planning, construction, and development should focus not only on protecting large areas but also on maintaining and promoting diverse habitats within these areas. At the same time, reducing anthropogenic disturbance and enhancing the connectivity of green spaces are important for the persistence of metacommunities and can contribute to the local species pool, thus potentially improving the ecological resilience of urban environments. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Flora and Vegetation in Cities: Basic and Applied Scientific Knowledge for Environmental Sustainability)

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16 pages, 2196 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Socioeconomic Disparities in Urban Forest Diversity and Structure in Green Areas of Santiago de Chile

by Brian R. Guevara, Sandra V. Uribe, Carmen L. de la Maza and Nélida R. Villaseñor

Plants 2024, 13(13), 1841; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants13131841 - 4 Jul 2024

Viewed by 1670

Abstract

Urban trees enhance biodiversity, provide ecosystem services, and improve quality of life in cities. Despite their benefits, trees are not distributed equitably, and many cities exhibit a “luxury effect”. Given the importance of public green space for providing access to urban tree benefits, we investigated the relationship between socioeconomic level and tree diversity and structure in 60 green areas in Santiago de Chile. Species richness and total tree abundance did not significantly vary among socioeconomic levels; however, a differential effect was found according to species origin. Introduced tree species exhibited similar abundance and species richness across socioeconomic levels, but native tree species were more abundant and richer in higher socioeconomic level areas compared to lower ones. Tree cover was higher in the high and medium socioeconomic level areas than in the low socioeconomic level area. A higher average DBH was found in the medium socioeconomic level area, which may be explained by older neighborhoods and a legacy of the luxury effect. Our findings reveal that socioeconomic groups are associated with differences in tree cover, width, and the number of native species in public green areas. Consequently, urban residents have different provisions of ecosystem services and opportunities to interact with natural heritage. Increasing the amount of tree cover and native species available to vulnerable groups will reduce disparities. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Flora and Vegetation in Cities: Basic and Applied Scientific Knowledge for Environmental Sustainability)

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19 pages, 3705 KiB

Open AccessReview

Life at the Top: Extensive Green Roof Plant Species and Their Traits for Urban Use

by Cristina C. Todeschini and Arthur G. Fett-Neto

Plants 2025, 14(5), 735; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants14050735 - 27 Feb 2025

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 450

Abstract

Green roofs are becoming common in cities around the world. Rooftop vegetation faces severe and unique conditions ranging from shallow substrates, high irradiance, water limitation, flooding, extreme temperatures, and strong winds. To benefit the most from this technology for improving urban climate, ecological interactions, and human life quality, it is important to have a toolbox of candidate plant species adapted to the rooftop environment. Herein, an effort was made to provide an overview of the global scenario of green roof plants. A quantitative and qualitative review examining 439 articles published within an approximate 14-year time window (2009 to mid-2023) was conducted to categorize plants amenable to use in green roof conditions, and to identify and discuss their key morphophysiological phenotypic features. This dataset allowed the establishment of archetypal green roof plants for use in different climates. Similar traits were recorded between temperate and continental climate species on one side and between tropical and dry climate plants on the other. The identified set of species and their archetypes within each major climate zone can be useful for readily adopting and expanding new green roofs and as a guideline for incorporating new taxa into this urban environmental technology. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Flora and Vegetation in Cities: Basic and Applied Scientific Knowledge for Environmental Sustainability)

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27 pages, 5476 KiB

Open AccessReview

Microclimate Performance Analysis of Urban Vegetation: Evidence from Hot Humid Middle Eastern Cities

by Sarah Al-Hajri, Baqer Al-Ramadan, Md Shafiullah and Syed Masiur Rahman

Plants 2025, 14(4), 521; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants14040521 - 8 Feb 2025

Viewed by 836

Abstract

Urban heat islands (UHIs) pose a growing challenge in rapidly urbanizing areas, necessitating effective mitigation strategies to enhance environmental sustainability and human well-being. This study examined the role of vegetation in regulating urban microclimates, focusing on its ability to mitigate the effects of UHIs, promote thermal comfort, and enhance urban esthetics. The study drew on existing research that employed spatial analysis and Geographic Information Systems (GIS) to explore the relationship between vegetation metrics and reductions in surface temperature. Municipal initiatives in Khobar, Saudi Arabia, including tree-planting programs and street humanization projects, aimed to improve urban esthetics and pedestrian experiences. Although these efforts enhanced urban livability, they lacked a comprehensive ecological perspective, emphasizing the need for strategies that integrate thermal comfort, environmental resilience, and broader sustainability goals. The analysis demonstrated the societal and environmental benefits of tree-planting activities and linked urban vegetation plans to the achievement of Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). The results highlighted the importance of incorporating green infrastructure in urban development to mitigate the effects of UHIs, improve air quality, and enhance overall urban livability. This paper proposed a framework for sustainable urban design, offering practical insights for policymakers and urban planners working to create resilient, environmentally conscious communities in extreme climates. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Flora and Vegetation in Cities: Basic and Applied Scientific Knowledge for Environmental Sustainability)

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23 pages, 8904 KiB

Open AccessPerspective

Building Greener Cities Together: Urban Afforestation Requires Multiple Skills to Address Social, Ecological, and Climate Challenges

by Raffaello Resemini, Chiara Geroldi, Giulia Capotorti, Andrea De Toni, Francesco Parisi, Michele De Sanctis, Thomas Cabai, Micol Rossini, Luigi Vignali, Matteo Umberto Poli, Ermes Lo Piccolo, Barbara Mariotti, Andrea Arcidiacono, Paolo Biella, Erica Alghisi, Luciano Bani, Massino Bertini, Carlo Blasi, Francesca Buffi, Enrico Caprio, Stefano Castiglione, Patrizia Digiovinazzo, Olivia Dondina, Giuliano Fanelli, Francesco Ferrini, Valentina Fiorilli, Gianluca Gaiani, Daniela Gambino, Andrea Genre, Bruno Lasserre, Alberto Maltoni, Marco Marchetti, Chiara Montagnani, Marco Ottaviano, Cinzia Panigada, Silvia Ronchi, Stefano Salata, Fabio Salbitano, Enrico Simoni, Soraya Versace, Maria Chiara Pastore, Sandra Citterio, Massimo Labra and Rodolfo Gentili Show full author list Hide full author list

Plants 2025, 14(3), 404; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants14030404 - 29 Jan 2025

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1435

Abstract

Urban afforestation is increasingly regarded as a key strategy for fostering biodiversity to restore and enhance the ecosystem services needed to counteract the effects of climate change in built-up areas. In Italy, several experimental afforestation projects have been launched as part of the National Recovery and Resilience Plan (NRRP), focusing on cities or metropolitan areas such as Milan, Rome, Pistoia and Campobasso. These projects follow a multidisciplinary approach, integrating botanists, foresters, urban planners, landscape architects and remote sensing specialists. The goal is to address the challenging complexity of urban forest restoration through reforestation and afforestation actions. Key innovations include the integration of transdisciplinary methodologies (landscape analysis, landscape design, forest and plant ecology) with the application of advanced remote sensing technologies and participatory community engagement frameworks to address ecological and social challenges. Experimental plots have been set up across various urban areas, testing a range of planting schemes to maximise climate change resilience and ensure long-term ecological sustainability. Emphasis has been placed on selecting drought-tolerant and thermophilic species that are better adapted to widespread warming and local urban heat islands. ‘Biodiversity strips’ with perennial flowers for insects, shrubs with berries for birds and nests for wild bees and vertebrates have been set up to enhance biodiversity in new afforestation areas. Advanced monitoring tools, such as Light Detection and Ranging (LiDAR) and multi-sensor drones, have been employed alongside field observations to assess forest growth, species survival, structural complexity and biodiversity enhancement over time. Historical analyses of landscape patterns and ecological connectivity over the past 200 years, along with evaluations of afforestation projects from the last 70 years, have provided critical insights into the successes and challenges of previous interventions, serving as a guide for future efforts. By focusing on ecological connectivity, the integration of afforested areas into the urban matrix, and citizen engagement, the current project aims to align urban forestry efforts with sustainable development goals. This comprehensive project framework addresses environmental restoration and the social and aesthetic impacts on local communities, contributing to the overall resilience and well-being of urban and peri-urban ecosystems. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Flora and Vegetation in Cities: Basic and Applied Scientific Knowledge for Environmental Sustainability)

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