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A special issue of Polymers (ISSN 2073-4360). This special issue belongs to the section "Polymer Networks".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (25 January 2024) | Viewed by 22948

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Dr. Petros Mourouzis

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Department of Operative Dentistry, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Thessaloniki, Greece
Interests: resin composites; CAD/CAM; polymers; aesthetic dentsitry
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Dr. Arhakis Aristidis

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Department of Paediatric Dentistry, School of Dentistry, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Thessaloniki, Greece
Interests: endodontics; pediatric dentistry; restorative dentistry; esthetic dentistry; clinical dentistry; root canal treatment; dental caries; dental materials; composite resins; dental education; aesthetic dentistry; periodontology; teeth whitening; periodontics and oral pathology; fixed prosthodontics; dental prosthesis
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Dr. Dimitrios Dionysopoulos

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Department of Operative Dentistry, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Thessaloniki, Greece
Interests: composite resins; dental materials; restorative dentistry; operative dentistry; dental cariesc; teeth whitening; preventive dentistry; dental biomaterials; cariology; laser in dentistry; adhesives; conservative dentistry; glass Ionomer cements; tooth erosion; tooth bleaching; bleaching agents; fluoride
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Dear Colleagues,

One of the most evolutionary fields in Dentistry is the area of dental materials. The development of polymer restorative materials produced aesthetic restorations with minimal cutbacks of dental tissue. The mixing of organic monomers with inorganic fine glass-reinforced fillers produced dental materials with strong, highly polished, durable aesthetic materials. In addition to the first-introduced polymer restorative materials, more choices were added to the armamentarium of the clinician. Flowable resin or packable resin composites, CAD/CAM resin and resin-ceramics blocks, and bulk fill resin composites were well adapted to the remaining dental tissues and, along with the adhesive systems, were able to provide dental restorations with high survival rates. Research on dental polymer materials and their application is a demanding field which will have an impact on their further development. This Special Issue aims to report on high-quality research on the recent progress of polymers in the field of Dentistry.

Dr. Petros Mourouzis
Dr. Arhakis Aristidis
Dr. Dimitrios Dionysopoulos
Guest Editors

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Related Special Issue

Polymers in Restorative Dentistry: 2nd Edition in Polymers

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12 pages, 1837 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Performance Assessment of Three Similar Dental Restorative Composite Materials via Raman Spectroscopy Supported by Complementary Methods Such as Hardness and Density Measurements

by Stefan-Marian Iordache, Ana-Maria Iordache, Dina Ilinca Gatin, Cristiana Eugenia Ana Grigorescu, Roxana Romanita Ilici, Catalin-Romeo Luculescu and Eduard Gatin

Polymers 2024, 16(4), 466; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym16040466 - 7 Feb 2024

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1225

Abstract

(1) Background: A widespread problem in oral health is cavities produced by cariogenic bacteria that consume fermentable carbohydrates and lower pH to 5.5–6.5, thus extracting Ca²⁺ and phosphate ions (PO₄³⁻) from teeth. Dental restorative materials based on polymers are used to fill the gaps in damaged teeth, but their properties are different from those of dental enamel. Therefore, a question is raised about the similarity between dental composites and natural teeth in terms of density and hardness. (2) Methods: We have used Raman spectroscopy and density and microhardness measurements to compare physical characteristics of several restorative dental composites at different polymerization intervals. (3) Results: XRVHerculite^®, Optishade^®, and VertiseFlow^® showed the very different characteristics of the physical properties following four polymerization intervals. Of the three composites, OptiShade showed the highest polymerization rate. (4) Conclusions: Only fully polymerized composites can be used in teeth restoring, because incomplete polymerization would result in cracks, pitting, and lead finally to failure. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymers in Restorative Dentistry)

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11 pages, 4550 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Bond Strength of Reline Materials to 3D-Printed Provisional Crown Resins

by Jorge Palavicini, Sherrod L. Quin, Wael Zakkour, Karim Zakkour, Safa Manafi Varkiani, Xiaoming Xu, Nathaniel C. Lawson and Amir Hossein Nejat

Polymers 2023, 15(18), 3745; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym15183745 - 13 Sep 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1991

Abstract

(1) Purpose: The aim of the present study was to compare the bond strength between two 3D-printed resins designed for long-term provisional crowns and three different reline materials. (2) Materials and Methods: Rectangular specimens were prepared from two 3D-printed resins (Envision Tech and NextDent C&B) and a conventional self-cure PMMA. Transparent tubes filled with three different reline materials including composite resin, Bis-acryl, and PMMA were bonded to the 3D-printed specimens (n = 11 per group, total of 6 study groups). Tubes filled with PMMA were bonded to the prepared PMMA specimens which served as the control group (n = 11, control group). The specimens were subjected to a shear bond strength (SBS) test, and mode of failure was recorded using light microscopy. Statistical analysis was performed using a one-way ANOVA and post hoc Tukey’s tests (alpha = 0.05). (3) Results: The highest SBS value was achieved to both 3D-printed materials with the PMMA reline material. The bond to both 3D-printed materials was lower with Bis-acrylic or composite resin relines in comparison to that with PMMA (p-value < 0.05). No significant difference was found between the control PMMA group and either 3D-printed material when relined with PMMA (p-value > 0.05). (4) Conclusion: The tested 3D-printed resins achieved a clinically acceptable bond strength when relined with PMMA. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymers in Restorative Dentistry)

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14 pages, 6199 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Development of a Boron Nitride-Filled Dental Adhesive System

by Senthilguru Kulanthaivel, Jeremiah Poppen, Sandra Ribeiro Cunha, Benjamin Furman, Kyumin Whang and Erica C. Teixeira

Polymers 2023, 15(17), 3512; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym15173512 - 23 Aug 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1284

Abstract

There is a dearth of adhesive systems capable of forming stable bonds between restorative materials and tooth surfaces. To address the concern, this study determined the effects of using methacrylate-functionalized boron nitride nanosheets (BNNSs) in a polymeric dental adhesive system. The bisphenol A glycidyl dimethacrylate (BisGMA):2 hydroxyethyl methacrylate (HEMA) (60:40) adhesive monomer blend with a photoinitiator was filled with 0 wt% (control), 0.1 wt%, and 1 wt% BNNSs and light cured. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy was performed to determine the conversion degree of monomer double bonds (DoC). Water absorption and solubility were measured. Flexural strength and Youngs’s modulus were evaluated to determine the mechanical properties of the composite adhesive system. Finally, dentin bond strength degradation and fracture mode were quantified with a microtensile bond test to confirm the bonding ability of the developed adhesive system. Results showed that the incorporation of BNNSs increased DoC (9.8% and 5.4% for 0.1 and 1 wt%, respectively), but it did not affect water sorption (101.9–119.72 (µg/mm³)), solubility (2.62–5.54 (µg/mm³)), Young’s modulus (529.1–1716.1 MPa), or microtensile bond strength (46.66–54.72 MPa). Further studies are needed with varying BNNS loading percentages from 0.1 wt% to 1 wt% in order to more comprehensively determine the effect of BNNSs on dental adhesives. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymers in Restorative Dentistry)

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13 pages, 2126 KiB

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Fracture Resistance of Class II MOD Cavities Restored by Direct and Indirect Techniques and Different Materials Combination

by Vasiliki Tsertsidou, Petros Mourouzis, Dimitrios Dionysopoulos, Panagiotis Pandoleon and Kosmas Tolidis

Polymers 2023, 15(16), 3413; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym15163413 - 15 Aug 2023

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 3425

Abstract

This study aimed to evaluate the fracture resistance of class II MOD cavities restored using different techniques and materials. Sixty extracted maxillary molars were selected and standardized class II MOD cavities were prepared using a custom-made paralleling device. The specimens were divided into four groups based on the restoration technique used: Group 1 (direct resin composite), Group 2 (short-fiber-reinforced composite resin), Group 3 (composite polyethylene fiber reinforcement), and Group 4 (CAD/CAM resin inlays). Fracture resistance was assessed for each group after thermocycling aging for 10,000 cycles. The mode of fracture was assigned to five types using Burke’s classification. To compare the fracture force among the tested materials, a paired sample t-test was performed. The significance level for each test was set at p < 0.05. Significant differences in fracture resistance were observed among the different restoration techniques. CAD/CAM inlays (2166 ± 615 N), short-fiber-reinforced composite resin (2471 ± 761 N), and composite polyethylene fiber reinforcement (1923 ± 492 N) showed superior fracture resistance compared to the group restored with direct resin composite (1242 ± 436 N). The conventional resin composite group exhibited the lowest mean fracture resistance. The choice of restoration material plays a critical role in the clinical survival of large MOD cavities. CAD/CAM inlays and fiber-reinforced composites offer improved fracture resistance, which is essential for long-term success in extensive restorations. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymers in Restorative Dentistry)

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12 pages, 4191 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Bonding Characteristics of Silane Coupling Agent and MMA-Containing Primer to Various Composite CAD/CAM Blocks

by Masaki Asakura, Koki Aimu, Tatsuhide Hayashi, Masakazu Matsubara, Akimichi Mieki, Seiji Ban and Tatsushi Kawai

Polymers 2023, 15(16), 3396; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym15163396 - 13 Aug 2023

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 1541

Abstract

This study evaluated the bonding characteristics of a silane coupling agent (SCA) and a methyl methacrylate (MMA)-containing primer (MCP) for 11 types of commercial composite blocks (CBs) for sandblasted and non-sandblasted surfaces. The shear bond strength (SBS) was measured according to ISO 29022: Notched-edge shear bond strength test. The SBS results demonstrated statistically significant differences between the CBs under all identical conditions. For the non-sandblasted groups, the SBSs of MCP-treated specimens were significantly higher than those of SCA-treated specimens for all but two CBs. Comparing the two treatments in sandblasted groups, the SBS was significantly higher for seven out of 11 MCP-treated RCB specimens, in contrast with three cases for the SCA-treated group. Two-way ANOVA for SBS showed the interaction effect between sandblasting and primer type for specific CBs, indicating that the sandblasting treatment improved SBS more effectively for SCA-treated specimens. Moreover, the effect of the SCA treatment was more material-dependent compared to that of the MCP treatment, which did not achieve a strong bond in all CBs but proved more effective than the SCA treatment, especially for non-sandblasted surfaces. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymers in Restorative Dentistry)

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12 pages, 2902 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Trueness, Flexural Strength, and Surface Properties of Various Three-Dimensional (3D) Printed Interim Restorative Materials after Accelerated Aging

by Omar Alageel, Saleh Alhijji, Omar Alsadon, Majed Alsarani, Abdurabu Abdullah Gomawi and Abdulaziz Alhotan

Polymers 2023, 15(14), 3040; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym15143040 - 14 Jul 2023

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 1903

Abstract

Various 3D printing systems for interim fixed dental restorations are commercially available. This study aimed to evaluate the physical and mechanical properties of 3D printed resins used for interim restorations fabricated using various 3D printing systems and printing angulations after accelerated aging. Three different interim restorative materials were provided and printed using their specific 3D printing systems (A: NextDent; B: Asiga; C: Nova3D), and the testing specimens from each system were printed at two building angles: (1) 0° and (2) 90°. The six groups were A1, A2, B1, B2, C1, and C2, with sixteen specimens per group. Half of the specimens in each group (N = 8) were subjected to accelerated aging, including simulated brushing and thermocycling. Three-point bending, surface roughness, and Vickers microhardness tests were performed. Two-way ANOVA and Fisher’s multiple tests were used for statistical analyses. The most accurate systems were found in groups C1 and C2 for length, A1 and B1 for width, and A1 and C1 for height. The specimen trueness only changed after aging for groups B1, B2, and C1. The flexural strength of the A2 group (151 ± 7 MPa) before aging was higher than that of the other groups, and the strength decreased after aging only for groups A1 and A2. The flexural strength, microhardness, and surface roughness of the 3D printed interim resins after aging varied depending on the material, system used, and printing angle. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymers in Restorative Dentistry)

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11 pages, 2728 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Oxidized Natural Biopolymer for Enhanced Surface, Physical and Mechanical Properties of Glass Ionomer Luting Cement

by Aftab Ahmed Khan, Ahmed Bari, Abdulaziz Abdullah Al-Kheraif, Hanan Alsunbul, Hind Alhaidry, Rasha Alharthi and Alhanoof Aldegheishem

Polymers 2023, 15(12), 2679; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym15122679 - 14 Jun 2023

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 1517

Abstract

This laboratory investigation aimed to synthesize and characterize micron-sized Gum Arabic (GA) powder and incorporate it in commercially available GIC luting formulation for enhanced physical and mechanical properties of GIC composite. Oxidation of GA was performed and GA-reinforced GIC in 0.5, 1.0, 2.0, 4.0 & 8.0 wt.% formulations were prepared in disc-shaped using two commercially available GIC luting materials (Medicem and Ketac Cem Radiopaque). While the control groups of both materials were prepared as such. The effect of reinforcement was evaluated in terms of nano hardness, elastic modulus, diametral tensile strength (DTS), compressive strength (CS), water solubility and sorption. Two-way ANOVA and post hoc tests were used to analyze data for statistical significance (p < 0.05). FTIR spectrum confirmed the formation of acid groups in the backbone of polysaccharide chain of GA while XRD peaks confirmed that crystallinity of oxidized GA. The experimental group with 0.5 wt.% GA in GIC enhanced the nano hardness while 0.5 wt.% and 1.0 wt.% GA in GIC increased the elastic modulus compared to the control. The CS of 0.5 wt.% GA in GIC and DTS of 0.5 wt.% and 1.0 wt.% GA in GIC demonstrated elevation. In contrast, the water solubility and sorption of all the experimental groups increased compared to the control groups. The incorporation of lower weight ratios of oxidized GA powder in GIC formulation helps in enhancing the mechanical properties with a slight increase in water solubility and sorption parameters. The addition of micron-sized oxidized GA in GIC formulation is promising and needs further research for improved performance of GIC luting composition. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymers in Restorative Dentistry)

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13 pages, 26763 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effect of Antibacterial Agents on Dentin Bond Strength of Bioactive Restorative Materials

by Roaa Abuljadayel, Nouf Aljadani, Hazim Almutairi and Alaa Turkistani

Polymers 2023, 15(12), 2612; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym15122612 - 8 Jun 2023

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 1795

Abstract

Treating dentin surfaces with antibacterial agents prior to bonding bioactive restorations might affect their mechanical properties. In this study, we evaluated the effect of silver diamine fluoride (SDF) and chlorhexidine (CHX) on the shear bond strength (SBS) of bioactive restorative materials. Dentin discs were treated with SDF for 60 s or CHX for 20 s and bonded with four restorative materials, namely Activa Bioactive Restorative (AB), Beautifil II (BF), Fuji II LC (FJ), and Surefil One (SO). Control discs were bonded without treatment (n = 10). SBS was determined using a universal testing machine, and a scanning electron microscope (SEM) was used for the evaluation of the failure mode and the cross-sectional examination of adhesive interfaces. The SBS of each material between different treatments and of the different materials within each treatment were compared via a Kruskal–Wallis test. The SBS of AB and BF was significantly higher than that of FJ and SO in the control and CHX groups (p < 0.01). In the latter, SBS was higher in FJ than SO (p < 0.01). SO had a higher value with SDF compared to CHX (p = 0.01). The SBS of SDF-treated FJ was higher than that of the control (p < 0.01). SEM showed a more homogenous and improved interface of FJ and SO with SDF. Neither CHX nor SDF compromised the dentin bonding of bioactive restorative materials. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymers in Restorative Dentistry)

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11 pages, 1566 KiB

Open AccessArticle

No-Cap Flowable Bulk-Fill Composite: Physico-Mechanical Assessment

by Abdullah Alshehri, Feras Alhalabi, Ali Robaian, Mohammed A. S. Abuelqomsan, Abdulrahman Alshabib, Eman Ismail, Faisal Alzamil, Nawaf Alotaibi and Hamad Algamaiah

Polymers 2023, 15(8), 1847; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym15081847 - 11 Apr 2023

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2072

Abstract

(1) Background: A newer class of flowable bulk-fill resin-based composite (BF–RBC) materials requires no capping layer (Palfique Bulk flow, PaBF, Tokuyama Dental, Tokyo, Japan). The objective of this study was to assess the flexural strength, microhardness, surface roughness, and color stability of PaBF compared to two BF-RBCs with different consistencies. (2) Methods: PaBF, SDR Flow composite (SDRf: Charlotte, NC, USA) and One Bulk fill (OneBF: 3M, St. Paul, MN, USA) were evaluated for flexural strength with a universal testing machine, surface microhardness using a pyramidal Vickers indenter, and surface roughness using a high-resolution three-dimensional non-contact optical profiler, a and clinical spectrophotometer to measure the color stability of each BF–RBC material. (3) Results: OneBF presented statistically higher flexural strength and microhardness than PaBF or SDRf. Both PaBF and SDRf presented significantly less surface roughness compared with OneBF. Water storage significantly reduced the flexural strength and increased the surface roughness of all tested materials. Only SDRf showed significant color change after water storage. (4) Conclusions: The physico-mechanical properties of PaBF do not support its use without a capping layer in the stress bearing areas. PaBF showed less flexural strength compared with OneBF. Therefore, its use should be limited to a small restoration with minimal occlusal stresses. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymers in Restorative Dentistry)

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14 pages, 2713 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Teeth Restored with Bulk–Fill Composites and Conventional Resin Composites; Investigation of Stress Distribution and Fracture Lifespan on Enamel, Dentin, and Restorative Materials via Three-Dimensional Finite Element Analysis

by Hakan Yasin Gönder, Reza Mohammadi, Abdulkadir Harmankaya, İbrahim Burak Yüksel, Yasemin Derya Fidancıoğlu and Said Karabekiroğlu

Polymers 2023, 15(7), 1637; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym15071637 - 25 Mar 2023

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2529

Abstract

Objectives: the aim of this study was to examine the stress distribution of enamel, dentin, and restorative materials in sound first molar teeth with restored cavities with conventional resin composites and bulk–fill composites, as well as to determine their fracture lifetimes by using the three-dimensional finite element stress analysis method. Materials and Methods: an extracted sound number 26 tooth was scanned with a dental tomography device and recorded. Images were obtained as dicom files, and these files were transferred to the Mimics 12.00 program. In this program, different masks were created for each tooth tissue, and the density thresholds were adjusted manually to create a three-dimensional image of the tooth, and these were converted to a STL file. The obtained STL files were transferred to the Geomagic Design X program, and some necessary adjustments, such as smoothing, were made, and STP files were created. Cavity preparation and adhesive material layers were created by transferring STP files to the Solidworks program. Finally, a FE model was created in the ABAQUS program, and stress distributions were analyzed. Results: when the bulk–fill composite and conventional resin composite materials were used in the restoration of the cavity, the structures that were exposed to the most stress as a result of occlusal forces on the tooth were enamel, dentin, restorative material, and adhesive material. When the bulk–fill composite material was used in restoration, while the restorative material had the longest fracture life as a result of stresses, the enamel tissue had the shortest fracture life. When the conventional resin composite material was used as the restorative material, it had the longest fracture life, followed by dentin and enamel. Conclusion: when the bulk–fill composite material was used instead of the conventional resin composite material in the cavity, the stress values on enamel, dentin, and adhesive material increased as a result of occlusal forces, while the amount of stress on the restorative material decreased. In the fracture analysis, when the bulk–fill composite material was used instead of the conventional resin composite material, a decrease in the number of cycles required for the fracture of enamel, dentin, and restorative materials was observed as a result of the forces generated in the oral cavity. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymers in Restorative Dentistry)

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Review

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16 pages, 16307 KiB

Open AccessReview

Innovations in the Design and Application of Stimuli-Responsive Restorative Dental Polymers

by Ana Paula P. Fugolin, Bao Huynh and Sivashankari P. Rajasekaran

Polymers 2023, 15(16), 3346; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym15163346 - 9 Aug 2023

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 1935

Abstract

The field of dental materials is undergoing rapid advancements in the pursuit of an innovative generation of dental polymeric restorative materials. There is a growing interest in the development of a distinct category of dental polymers that transcend the conventional role of inertly filling prepared cavities. Instead, these materials possess the capacity to actively detect and respond to alterations within the host environment by undergoing dynamic and controlled molecular changes. Despite the well-established status of stimuli-responsive polymeric systems in other fields, their implementation in dentistry is still in its nascent stages, presenting a multitude of promising opportunities for advancement. These systems revolve around the fundamental concept of harnessing distinctive stimuli inherent in the oral environment to trigger precise, targeted, predictable, and demand-driven responses through molecular modifications within the polymeric network. This review aims to provide a comprehensive overview of the diverse categories of stimuli-responsive polymers, accentuating the critical aspects that must be considered during their design and development phases. Furthermore, it evaluates their current application in the dental field while exploring potential alternatives for future advancements. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymers in Restorative Dentistry)

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