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A special issue of Polymers (ISSN 2073-4360). This special issue belongs to the section "Polymer Applications".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (28 November 2021) | Viewed by 43948

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Dr. Andrea Scribante

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Guest Editor

Unit of Orthodontics and Paediatric Dentistry, Section of Dentistry, Department of Clinical, Surgical, Diagnostic and Paediatric Sciences, University of Pavia, 27100 Pavia, Italy
Interests: orthodontics; dental hygiene, adhesive dentistry; dental materials; CAD/CAM; intraoral scanner; computerized cast; shear; bond strength; bracket; fiber-reinforced composite; miniscrews; remineralization; probiotics; biomimetic materials
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Dr. Simone Gallo

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Co-Guest Editor

Department of Clinical, Surgical, Diagnostic and Paediatric Sciences, Section of Dentistry, University of Pavia, Pavia, Italy
Interests: polymeric dental materials; dentistry; polymeric adhesion; orthodontics
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Polymers represent a widespread category of materials with applications both in medicine and in dentistry, and this is attributed not only to their surface characteristics but also their mechanical and biological properties, along with easy processability and low cost. They consist of high-molecular-mass macromolecules formed by the repetition of the respective monomers. In dentistry, some of the most commonly used polymers are polyethylene (PE), polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA), polycarbonate (PC), polyethylene glycol (PEG), polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS), polyurethane (PUR), polylactic acid (PLLA), poly(e-caprolactone) (PCL), polypyrrole (PPy), hexamethyldisilazane (HMDS), N-isopropylacrylamide (NIPAM), and N-tert-butylacrylamide (TBA). The mechanical properties of these biomaterials are related to their bulk characteristics; however, their interaction with tissues strictly depends on their surface, which justifies the possibility of using polymer coatings to increase the biocompatibility of bulk materials.

Considering the specific applications of polymers, these cover almost every field of dentistry. The current restorative procedures are based on restorations with composite resins that are made of monomers that become polymeric after photopolymerization. This is the same for dental adhesives, which represent a prerequisite to guarantee the adhesion of restorations to the dental surface, as well as that of brackets and retainers in orthodontics. Moreover, cements like resin-modified glass-ionomers, which contain a resinous component, are used for the adhesion of orthodontic bands to posterior teeth besides having many applications in pedodontics. In addition, fiber-reinforced composites are used for post-orthodontic tooth retention and for splinting mobile teeth.

Polymeric materials are also encountered in prosthodontics, for example, with acrylic resins dentures and with adhesives for metal or ceramic, and polymers are suitable as 3D-printing materials due to their versatility. Recently, the synthetic polyetheretherketone (PEEK) has also been proposed as a new implant material.

Finally, polymers (even of natural origin) are also used to fabricate scaffolds, inducing an in situ regeneration of dentin- and pulp-like tissues, to realize membranes for guided tissue regeneration (GTR), and then as delivery systems of various drugs or bioactive macromolecules to treat different oral and periodontal pathologies.

In conclusion, polymer-based materials are playing a central role in dentistry and knowledge of their properties should be improved to take advantage of further potentialities in clinical practice. Therefore, it is our pleasure to invite you to submit a manuscript for this Special Issue on developments and applications of polymeric materials in dentistry. Full papers, communications, and reviews are welcome.

Potential topics include but are not limited to the following:

Polymer-based dental materials
Resin composites
Adhesives
Restorative dentistry
Prosthodontics
Orthodontics
Pediatric dentistry
Regenerative therapies
Drug delivery systems

Please refer to the non-exhaustive list of keywords for further hints.

Prof. Dr. Andrea Scribante
Dr. Simone Gallo
Guest Editors

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Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Polymers is an international peer-reviewed open access semimonthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2700 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

polymers
dentistry
dental materials
restorative
resin
composite
adhesive
orthodontics
regenerative therapies
drug delivery

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Published Papers (9 papers)

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14 pages, 2609 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Effect of Extrinsic Factors on the Mechanical Behavior and Structure of Elastic Dental Ligatures and Chains

by Kata Csekő, Péter Maróti, Zsuzsanna Helyes, Roland Told, Fanni Riegler, József Szalma and Zsuzsanna Gurdán

Polymers 2022, 14(1), 38; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14010038 - 23 Dec 2021

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 3601

Abstract

Force provided by elastomers used in orthodontics can be affected by several factors present in the oral cavity. The aim of our study was to investigate the role of mouthwashes, toothbrushing, and smoking in the force decay of such elastomers. Tensile strength, changes in the force continuously exerted, and force decay of elastic chains (Ortho Organizer and Masel Short Power Chain) and elastic ligatures (Dentaurum and Masel) by two separate manufacturers were measured. Measurements were initially made on untreated elastics, followed by exposure to different environmental factors including cigarette smoke, toothbrushing (mechanical plaque control), and two different mouthwashes (chemical plaque control). Changes on the surface of the elastics were studied with scanning electron microscopy (SEM). Untreated Masel elastic ligature showed lower tensile strength than Dentaurum elastic ligature (2339 cN vs. 3660 cN), while significantly higher tensile strength was measured for Ortho Organizer elastic chains than Masel chains (2639 cN vs. 1324 cN). The decrease in the elastic force of Masel ligature was greater in response to all external factors compared to Dentaurum. Although brushing with toothpaste and toothbrush impacted the force of both Masel and Ortho organizer ligatures negatively, force degradation was more apparent in the case of the Ortho organizer. Surface changes were more visible when applying Curasept mouthrinse, however force decay was higher in the Corsodyl group. Mechanical and chemical plaque control can influence the tensile strength and force decay of orthodontic elastomers, which should be considered by selecting the elastomers or determining their changing interval for the practice. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymers for Oral and Dental Health)

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15 pages, 2848 KiB

Open AccessArticle

SEM/EDS Evaluation of the Mineral Deposition on a Polymeric Composite Resin of a Toothpaste Containing Biomimetic Zn-Carbonate Hydroxyapatite (microRepair^®) in Oral Environment: A Randomized Clinical Trial

by Andrea Butera, Maurizio Pascadopoli, Simone Gallo, Marco Lelli, Fabrizio Tarterini, Federico Giglia and Andrea Scribante

Polymers 2021, 13(16), 2740; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym13162740 - 16 Aug 2021

Cited by 60 | Viewed by 4581

Abstract

Toothpastes containing biomimetic hydroxyapatite have been investigated in recent years; the behavior of this material in the oral environment has been evaluated directly on dental enamel showing a marked remineralizing activity. To propose microRepair^®-based toothpastes (Zn-carbonate hydroxyapatite) for the domiciliary oral hygiene in patients with dental composite restorations, the aim of this study was to evaluate the deposition of Zn-carbonate hydroxyapatite on a polymeric composite resin with Scanning Electron Microscopy/Energy-Dispersive X-ray Spectrometry (SEM/EDS) analysis. Twenty healthy volunteers underwent the bonding of 3 orthodontic buttons on the vestibular surfaces of upper right premolars and first molar. On the surface of the buttons, a ball-shaped mass of composite resin was applied and light-cured. Then, the volunteers were randomly divided into two groups according to the toothpaste used for domiciliary oral hygiene: the Control toothpaste containing stannous fluoride and the Trial toothpaste containing microRepair^®. The buttons were debonded after 7 days (T1—first premolar), after 15 days (T2—second premolar), and after 30 days (T3—first molar) to undergo the SEM/EDS analysis. The deposition of calcium, phosphorus, and silicon was assessed through EDS analysis and data were submitted to statistical analysis (p < 0.05). SEM morphologic evaluation showed a marked deposition of the two toothpastes on the surfaces of the buttons. EDS quantitative analysis showed an increase of calcium, phosphorus, and silicon in both the groups, with a statistically significant difference of calcium deposition at T3 for the Trial group. Therefore, the use of toothpaste containing Zn-carbonate hydroxyapatite could be proposed as a device for domiciliary oral hygiene because the deposition of hydroxyapatite on polymeric composite resin could prevent secondary caries on the margins of restorations. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymers for Oral and Dental Health)

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12 pages, 2266 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Assessment of Bond Integrity, Durability, and Degree of Conversion of a Calcium Fluoride Reinforced Dentin Adhesive

by Mohammad H. AlRefeai, Eman M. AlHamdan, Samar Al-Saleh, Imran Farooq, Eisha Abrar, Fahim Vohra and Tariq Abduljabbar

Polymers 2021, 13(15), 2418; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym13152418 - 23 Jul 2021

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 2751

Abstract

Our study aimed to synthesize and compare the mechanical properties and dentin interaction of two adhesives; experimental adhesive (EA) and EA containing 5 wt.% calcium fluoride (CaF₂) nano-crystals (CaF₂ adhesive-CAFA). CaF₂ nano-crystals were synthesized by reacting two solutions (containing calcium and fluoride) in a glass chamber using a heated air system. The EA was produced using a mix of monomers, photo-initiators, camphorquinone, and electron initiators. The synthesized CaF₂ nano-crystals were centrifuged to guarantee that inside the adhesive there is homogenized dispersion of the filler particles. Their integration in the EA yielded two groups; Gp-1: EA (without CaF₂, control) and Gp-2: (5 wt.% CaF₂ containing adhesive, CAFA). Sixty teeth were prepared and set to form bonded specimens using the two adhesives. The CaF₂ nano-crystals were irregularly shaped with an average particle size of 30–200 nm. The highest μTBS values were obtained for CAFA-non-thermocycled (NTC) samples (32.63 ± 3.15), followed by EA-NTC (31.80 ± 3.75) specimens. On thermocycling (TC), both adhesive groups presented lower μTBS values (CAFA-TC: 29.47 ± 3.33 and EA-TC: 24.04 ± 3.69). Hybrid layer (HL) formation and resin tags of varying depths were perceived for both adhesive groups. The EDX analysis demonstrated the presence of carbon (C), silica (Si), calcium (Ca), and fluoride (F) for CAFA group. Micro-Raman spectroscopy revealed distinct peaks for CaF₂ nano-crystals. The CAFA group presented the greatest DC. The addition of CaF₂ nano-crystals in the adhesive caused improved bond μTBS and DC. The incorporation also demonstrated suitable dentin interaction, depicted by appropriate HL and resin tag development. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymers for Oral and Dental Health)

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11 pages, 1995 KiB

Open AccessCommunication

Influence of Polymeric Restorative Materials on the Stress Distribution in Posterior Fixed Partial Dentures: 3D Finite Element Analysis

by Larissa Mendes Campaner, Marcos Paulo Motta Silveira, Guilherme Schmitt de Andrade, Alexandre Luiz Souto Borges, Marco Antonio Bottino, Amanda Maria de Oliveira Dal Piva, Roberto Lo Giudice, Pietro Ausiello and João Paulo Mendes Tribst

Polymers 2021, 13(5), 758; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym13050758 - 28 Feb 2021

Cited by 37 | Viewed by 4432

Abstract

Background: This study evaluated the effect of interim restorative materials (acrylic resin (AR), resin composite (RC) or polyetheretherketone (PEEK) for dental computer-aided design/computer-aided manufacturing (CAD/CAM)) on the stress distribution of a posterior three-unit fixed partial denture. Methods: The abutment teeth (first molar and first premolar) were modeled using the BioCAD protocol containing 1.5 mm of axial reduction and converging axial walls. A static structural analysis was performed in the computer-aided engineering software, and the Maximum Principal Stress criterion was used to analyze the prosthesis and the cement layers of both abutment teeth. The materials were considered isotropic, linearly elastic, homogeneous and with bonded contacts. An axial load (600 N) was applied to the occlusal surface of the second premolar. Results: Regardless of the restorative material, the region of the prosthetic connectors showed the highest tensile stress magnitude. The highest stress peak was observed with the use of RC (129 MPa) compared to PEEK and AR. For the cement layers, RC showed the lowest values in the occlusal region (7 MPa) and the highest values for the cervical margin (14 MPa) compared to PEEK (21 and 12 MPa) and AR (21 and 13 MPa). Conclusions: Different interim restorative materials for posterior fixed partial dentures present different biomechanical behavior. The use of resin composite can attenuate the stress magnitude on the cement layer, and the use of acrylic resin can attenuate the stress magnitude on the connector region. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymers for Oral and Dental Health)

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13 pages, 3169 KiB

Open AccessArticle

TEGDMA (Triethylene Glycol Dimethacrylate) Induces Both Caspase-Dependent and Caspase-Independent Apoptotic Pathways in Pulp Cells

by Bálint Viktor Lovász, Gergely Berta, Edina Lempel, György Sétáló, Jr., Mónika Vecsernyés and József Szalma

Polymers 2021, 13(5), 699; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym13050699 - 25 Feb 2021

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 2949

Abstract

Monomers leached from resin-based composites (RBCs) may reach intrapulpal concentrations of the millimolar (mM) range, which could contribute to inflammation. The aim of this investigation was to assess the cytotoxicity of triethylene glycol dimethacrylate (TEGDMA) monomers on pulp cells as well as to identify molecular mechanisms leading to apoptosis. Pulp cells were harvested from molars extracted for orthodontic reasons and cultured through an explant method. To assess cytotoxicity, cells underwent a 5-day exposure to 0.75, 1.5, and 3 mM TEGDMA and were subject to cell counting and WST-1 staining. Based on the findings, cells were subsequently exposed to 0.1, 0.2, 0.75, 1.5, and 3 mM TEGDMA for 24 h to uncover the details of apoptosis. Changes in the production or cleavage of the apoptosis-specific proteins caspase-8, caspase-9, caspase-3, caspase-12, and Apoptosis-Inducing Factor (AIF) were measured by Western blot. The 5-day study showed concentration- and time-dependent cytotoxicity. Significant cell death was detected after 24 h with TEGDMA concentrations of 1.5 and 3 mM. One-day exposure to TEGDMA led to the activation of caspase-8, -9, -3, and -12 and an increased AIF production. Results suggest that relevant concentrations of TEGDMA monomers, leached from RBCs, induce apoptosis in pulp cells through both caspase-dependent as well as caspase-independent mechanisms. Endoplasmic reticulum stress and the activation of caspase-independent apoptotic pathways may be further mechanisms by which monomers induce apoptosis in pulp cells. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymers for Oral and Dental Health)

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15 pages, 3914 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Bonding and Thermal Cycling Performances of Two (Poly)Aryl–Ether–Ketone (PAEKs) Materials to an Acrylic Denture Base Resin

by Tzu-Yu Peng, Saiji Shimoe, Lih-Jyh Fuh, Chung-Kwei Lin, Dan-Jae Lin and Masato Kaku

Polymers 2021, 13(4), 543; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym13040543 - 12 Feb 2021

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 3043

Abstract

Poly(aryl–ether–ketone) materials (PAEKs) are gaining interest in everyday dental practices because of their natural properties. This study aims to analyze the bonding performance of PAEKs to a denture acrylic. Testing materials were pretreated by grinding, sandblasting, and priming prior to polymerization with the denture acrylic. The surface morphologies were observed using a scanning electron microscope and the surface roughness was measured using atomic force microscopy. The shear bond strength (SBS) values were determined after 0 and 2500 thermal cycles. The obtained data were analyzed using a paired samples t-test and Tukey’s honestly significant difference (HSD) test (α = 0.05). The surface characteristics of testing materials after different surface pretreatments showed obvious differences. PAEKs showed lower surface roughness values (0.02–0.03 MPa) than Co-Cr (0.16 MPa) and zirconia (0.22 MPa) after priming and sandblasting treatments (p < 0.05). The SBS values of PAEKs (7.60–8.38 MPa) met the clinical requirements suggested by ISO 10477 (5 MPa). Moreover, PAEKs showed significantly lower SBS reductions (p < 0.05) after thermal cycling fatigue testing compared to Co-Cr and zirconia. Bonding performance is essential for denture materials, and our results demonstrated that PAEKs possess good resistance to thermal cycling fatigue, which is an advantage in clinical applications. The results imply that PAEKs are potential alternative materials for the removable of prosthetic frameworks. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymers for Oral and Dental Health)

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17 pages, 5188 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Microwave-Assisted Fabrication of Mesoporous Silica-Calcium Phosphate Composites for Dental Application

by Adrian Szewczyk, Adrianna Skwira, Marta Ginter, Donata Tajer and Magdalena Prokopowicz

Polymers 2021, 13(1), 53; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym13010053 - 25 Dec 2020

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 2998

Abstract

Herein, the microwave-assisted wet precipitation method was used to obtain materials consisting of mesoporous silica (SBA-15) and calcium orthophosphates (CaP). Composites were prepared through immersion of mesoporous silica in different calcification coating solutions and then exposed to microwave radiation. The composites were characterized in terms of molecular structure, crystallinity, morphology, chemical composition, and mineralization potential by Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), powder X-ray diffraction (XRD), and scanning electron microscopy equipped with energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (SEM-EDX). The application of microwave irradiation resulted in the formation of different types of calcium orthophosphates such as calcium deficient hydroxyapatite (CDHA), octacalcium phosphate (OCP), and amorphous calcium phosphate (ACP) on the SBA-15 surface, depending on the type of coating solution. The composites for which the progressive formation of hydroxyapatite during incubation in simulated body fluid was observed were further used in the production of final pharmaceutical forms: membranes, granules, and pellets. All of the obtained pharmaceutical forms preserved mineralization properties. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymers for Oral and Dental Health)

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10 pages, 1235 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effect of Over-Etching and Prolonged Application Time of a Universal Adhesive on Dentin Bond Strength

by Phoebe Burrer, Hoang Dang, Matej Par, Thomas Attin and Tobias T. Tauböck

Polymers 2020, 12(12), 2902; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym12122902 - 3 Dec 2020

Cited by 15 | Viewed by 5903

Abstract

This study investigated the effect of over-etching and prolonged application time of a universal adhesive on dentin bond strength. Ninety extracted human molars were ground to dentin and randomly allocated into nine groups (G1–9; n = 10 per group), according to the following acid etching and adhesive application times. In the control group (G1), phosphoric acid etching was performed for 15 s followed by application of the universal adhesive Scotchbond Universal (3M) for 20 s, as per manufacturer’s instructions. In groups G2–5, both the etching and adhesive application times were either halved, doubled, quadrupled, or increased eightfold. In groups G6–9, etching times remained the same as in G2–5 (7.5 s, 30 s, 60 s, and 120 s, respectively), but the adhesive application time was set at 20 s as in the control group (G1). Specimens were then restored with a nanofilled composite material and subjected to microtensile bond strength testing. Bond strength data were statistically analyzed by ANOVA and Tukey’s post-hoc tests (α = 0.05). The relationship of bond strength with etching and adhesive application time was examined using linear regression analysis. Treatment of dentin with halved phosphoric acid etching and adhesive application times (G2) resulted in a significant bond strength decrease compared to the control group (G1) and all other test groups, including the group with halved acid etching, but 20 s of adhesive application time (G6). No significant differences in bond strength were found for groups with multiplied etching times and an adhesive application time of 20 s or more, when compared to the control group (G1). In conclusion, a universal adhesive application time of at least 20 s is recommended when bonding to over-etched dentin. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymers for Oral and Dental Health)

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Review

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34 pages, 7657 KiB

Open AccessReview

Bond Strength of Universal Adhesives to Dentin: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

by Louis Hardan, Rim Bourgi, Naji Kharouf, Davide Mancino, Maciej Zarow, Natalia Jakubowicz, Youssef Haikel and Carlos Enrique Cuevas-Suárez

Polymers 2021, 13(5), 814; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym13050814 - 7 Mar 2021

Cited by 59 | Viewed by 11223

Abstract

Currently, the availability of a wide variety of universal adhesives makes it difficult for clinicians to choose the correct system for specific bonding situations to dentin substrate. This study aimed to determine whether there are any alternative techniques or additional strategies available to enhance the bond strength of universal adhesives to dentin through a systematic review and meta-analysis. Two reviewers executed a literature search up to September 2020 in four electronic databases: PubMed, ISI Web of Science, Scopus, and EMBASE. Only in vitro studies that reported the dentin bond strength of universal adhesives using additional strategies were included. An analysis was carried out using Review Manager Software version 5.3.5 (The Nordic Cochrane Centre, The Cochrane Collaboration, Copenhagen, Denmark). The methodological quality of each in vitro study was assessed according to the parameters of a previous systematic. A total of 5671 potentially relevant studies were identified. After title and abstract examination, 74 studies remained in systematic review. From these, a total of 61 studies were included in the meta-analysis. The bond strength of universal adhesives to dentin was improved by the use of one of the following techniques: Previous application of matrix metalloproteinases (MMP) inhibitors (p < 0.001), prolonged application time (p = 0.007), scrubbing technique (p < 0.001), selective dentin etching (p < 0.001), non-atmospheric plasma (p = 0.01), ethanol-wet bonding (p < 0.01), prolonged blowing time (p = 0.02), multiple layer application (p = 0.005), prolonged curing time (p = 0.006), and hydrophobic layer coating (p < 0.001). On the other hand, the use of a shortened application time (p = 0.006), and dentin desensitizers (p = 0.01) impaired the bond strength of universal adhesives to dentin. Most of the analyses performed showed a high heterogenicity. The in vitro evidence suggests that the application of universal adhesives using some alternative techniques or additional strategies may be beneficial for improving their bonding performance to dentin. This research received no external funding. Considering that this systematic review was carried out only with in vitro studies, registration was not performed. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymers for Oral and Dental Health)

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