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13 pages, 2890 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Three-Dimensional Surface Reconstruction for Specular/Diffuse Composite Surfaces

by Chung-Hsuan Huang, Ssu-Chia He, Tsung-Yu Chen, Chau-Jern Cheng and Han-Yen Tu

Sensors 2024, 24(24), 7942; https://doi.org/10.3390/s24247942 - 12 Dec 2024

Viewed by 362

Abstract

This paper presents an effective three-dimensional (3D) surface reconstruction technique aimed at profiling composite surfaces with both specular and diffuse reflectance. Three-dimensional measurements based on fringe projection techniques perform well on diffuse reflective surfaces; however, when the measurement targets contain both specular and [...] Read more.

This paper presents an effective three-dimensional (3D) surface reconstruction technique aimed at profiling composite surfaces with both specular and diffuse reflectance. Three-dimensional measurements based on fringe projection techniques perform well on diffuse reflective surfaces; however, when the measurement targets contain both specular and diffuse components, the efficiency of fringe projection decreases. To address this issue, the proposed technique integrates digital holography into the fringe projection setup, enabling the simultaneous capture of both specular and diffuse reflected light in the same optical path for full-field surface profilometry. Experimental results demonstrate that this technique effectively detects and accurately reconstructs the 3D profiles of specular and diffuse reflectance, with fringe analysis providing the absolute phase of composite surfaces. The experiments validate the effectiveness of this technique in the 3D surface measurement of integrated circuit carrier boards with chips exhibiting composite surfaces. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Imaging and Sensing in Optics and Photonics)

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14 pages, 3964 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A High-Sensitivity Fiber Optic Soil Moisture Sensor Based on D-Shaped Fiber and Tin Oxide Thin Film Coatings

by Chuen-Lin Tien, Hsi-Fu Shih, Jia-Kai Tien and Ching-Chiun Wang

Sensors 2024, 24(23), 7474; https://doi.org/10.3390/s24237474 - 23 Nov 2024

Viewed by 652

Abstract

We present a high-sensitivity fiber optic soil moisture sensor based on side-polished multimode fibers and lossy mode resonance (LMR). The multimode fibers (MMFs), after side-polishing to form a D-shaped structure, are coated with a single-layer SnO₂ thin film by electron beam evaporation [...] Read more.

We present a high-sensitivity fiber optic soil moisture sensor based on side-polished multimode fibers and lossy mode resonance (LMR). The multimode fibers (MMFs), after side-polishing to form a D-shaped structure, are coated with a single-layer SnO₂ thin film by electron beam evaporation with ion-assisted deposition technology. The LMR effect can be obtained when the refractive index of the thin film is positive and greater than its extinction coefficient and the real part of the external medium permittivity. The D-shaped fiber optic soil moisture sensor was placed in soil, allowing moisture to penetrate into the thin film microstructure, and it observed the resonance wavelength shift in LMR spectra to measure the relative humidity change in soil. Meanwhile, an Arduino electronic soil moisture sensing module was used as the experimental control group, with soil relative humidity ranging from 10%RH to 90%RH. We found that the D-shaped fiber with a residual thickness of 93 μm and SnO₂ thin film thickness of 450 nm had a maximum sensitivity of 2.29 nm/%RH, with relative humidity varying from 10%RH to 90%RH. The D-shaped fiber also demonstrates a fast response time and good reproducibility. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Imaging and Sensing in Optics and Photonics)

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18 pages, 1981 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Characterization of Defocused Coherent Imaging Systems with Periodic Objects

by Gianlorenzo Massaro and Milena D’Angelo

Sensors 2024, 24(21), 6885; https://doi.org/10.3390/s24216885 - 26 Oct 2024

Viewed by 965

Abstract

Recent advancements in quantum and quantum-inspired imaging techniques have enabled high-resolution 3D imaging through photon correlations. These techniques exhibit reduced degradation of image resolution for out-of-focus samples compared to conventional methods (i.e., intensity-based incoherent imaging). A key advantage of these correlation-based approaches is [...] Read more.

Recent advancements in quantum and quantum-inspired imaging techniques have enabled high-resolution 3D imaging through photon correlations. These techniques exhibit reduced degradation of image resolution for out-of-focus samples compared to conventional methods (i.e., intensity-based incoherent imaging). A key advantage of these correlation-based approaches is their independence from the system numerical aperture (NA). Interestingly, both improved resolution of defocused images and NA-independent scaling are linked to the spatial coherence of light. This suggests that while correlation measurements exploit spatial coherence, they are not essential for achieving this imaging advantage. This discovery has led to the development of optical systems that achieve similar performance by using spatially coherent illumination and relying on intensity measurements: direct 3D imaging with NA-independent resolution was recently demonstrated in a correlation-free setup using LED light. Here, we explore the physics behind the enhanced performance of defocused coherent imaging, showing that it arises from the modification of the sample’s spatial harmonic content due to diffraction, unlike the blurring seen in conventional imaging. The results we present are crucial for understanding the implications of the physical differences between coherent and incoherent imaging, and are expected to pave the way for the practical application of the discovered phenomena. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Imaging and Sensing in Optics and Photonics)

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16 pages, 15256 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Three-Dimensional Single Random Phase Encryption

by Byungwoo Cho and Myungjin Cho

Sensors 2024, 24(6), 1952; https://doi.org/10.3390/s24061952 - 19 Mar 2024

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 822

Abstract

In this paper, we propose a new optical encryption technique that uses the single random phase mask. In conventional optical encryptions such as double random phase encryption (DRPE), two different random phase masks are required to encrypt the primary data. For decryption, DRPE [...] Read more.

In this paper, we propose a new optical encryption technique that uses the single random phase mask. In conventional optical encryptions such as double random phase encryption (DRPE), two different random phase masks are required to encrypt the primary data. For decryption, DRPE requires taking the absolute value of the decrypted data because it is complex-valued. In addition, when key information is revealed, the primary data may be reconstructed by attackers. To reduce the number of random phase masks and enhance the security level, in this paper, we propose single random phase encryption (SRPE) with additive white Gaussian noise (AWGN) and volumetric computational reconstruction (VCR) of integral imaging. In our method, even if key information is known, the primary data may not be reconstructed. To enhance the visual quality of the decrypted data by SRPE, multiple observation is utilized. To reconstruct the primary data, we use VCR of integral imaging because it can remove AWGN by average effect. Thus, since the reconstruction depth can be another key piece of information of SRPE, the security level can be enhanced. In addition, it does not require taking the absolute value of the decrypted data for decryption. To verify the validity of our method, we implement the simulation and calculate performance metrics such as peak sidelobe ratio (PSR) and structural similarity (SSIM). In increasing the number of observations, SSIM for the decrypted data can be improved dramatically. Moreover, even if the number of observations is not enough, three-dimensional (3D) data can be decrypted by SRPE at the correct reconstruction depth. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Imaging and Sensing in Optics and Photonics)

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10 pages, 3588 KiB

Open AccessCommunication

Combined Displacement and Angle Sensor with Ultra-High Compactness Based on Self-Imaging Effect of Optical Microgratings

by Mengdi Zhang, Hao Yang, Qianqi Niu, Xuye Zhang, Jiaan Yang, Jiangbei Lai, Changjiang Fan, Mengwei Li and Chenguang Xin

Sensors 2024, 24(3), 908; https://doi.org/10.3390/s24030908 - 30 Jan 2024

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1239

Abstract

In this paper, an ultracompact combined sensor for displacement and angle-synchronous measurement is proposed based on the self-imaging effect of optical microgratings. Using a two-grating structure, linear and angular displacement can be measured by detecting the change of phase and amplitude of the [...] Read more.

In this paper, an ultracompact combined sensor for displacement and angle-synchronous measurement is proposed based on the self-imaging effect of optical microgratings. Using a two-grating structure, linear and angular displacement can be measured by detecting the change of phase and amplitude of the optical transmission, respectively, within one single structure in the meantime. The optically transmitted properties of the two-grating structure are investigated in both theory and simulation. Simulated results indicate that optical transmission changes in a sinusoidal relationship to the input linear displacement. Meanwhile, the amplitude of the curve decreases with an input pitch angle, indicating the ability for synchronous measurement within one single compact structure. The synchronous measurement of the linear displacement and the angle is also demonstrated experimentally. The results show a resolution down to 4 nm for linear displacement measurement and a maximum sensitivity of 0.26 mV/arcsec within a range of ±1° for angle measurement. Benefiting from a simple common-path structure without using optical components, including reflectors and polarizers, the sensor shows ultra-high compactness for multiple-degrees-of-freedom measuring, indicating the great potential for this sensor in fields such as integrated mechanical positioning and semiconductor fabrication. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Imaging and Sensing in Optics and Photonics)

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20 pages, 18104 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Vision Measurement Method Based on Plate Glass Window Refraction Model in Tunnel Construction

by Zhen Wu, Junzhou Huo, Haidong Zhang, Fan Yang, Shangqi Chen and Zhihao Feng

Sensors 2024, 24(1), 66; https://doi.org/10.3390/s24010066 - 22 Dec 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 897

Abstract

Due to the harsh environment of high humidity and dust in tunnel construction, the vision measurement system needs to be equipped with an explosion-proof glass protective cover. The refractive effect of the plate glass window invalidates the pinhole model. This paper proposes a [...] Read more.

Due to the harsh environment of high humidity and dust in tunnel construction, the vision measurement system needs to be equipped with an explosion-proof glass protective cover. The refractive effect of the plate glass window invalidates the pinhole model. This paper proposes a comprehensive solution for addressing the issue of plane refraction. First, the imaging model for non-parallel plane refraction is established based on dynamic virtual focal length and the Rodriguez formula. Further, due to the failure of the epipolar constraint principle in binocular vision systems caused by plane refraction, this paper proposes the epipolar constraint model for independent refractive plane imaging. Finally, an independent refraction plane triangulation model is proposed to address the issue of triangulation failure caused by plane refraction. The RMSE of the depth of field errors in the independent refraction plane triangulation model is 2.9902 mm before correction and 0.3187 mm after correction. The RMSE of the positioning errors before and after correction are 3.5661 mm and 0.3465 mm, respectively. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Imaging and Sensing in Optics and Photonics)

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21 pages, 7968 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Jitter-Caused Clutter and Drift-Caused Clutter of Staring Infrared Sensor in Geostationary Orbit

by Boyuan Bian, Feng Zhou and Xiaoman Li

Sensors 2023, 23(11), 5278; https://doi.org/10.3390/s23115278 - 2 Jun 2023

Viewed by 1233

Abstract

For staring infrared sensors in geostationary orbit, the clutter caused by the high-frequency jitter and low-frequency drift of the sensor line-of-sight (LOS) is the impact of background features, sensor parameters, LOS motion characteristics, and background suppression algorithms. In this paper, the spectra of [...] Read more.

For staring infrared sensors in geostationary orbit, the clutter caused by the high-frequency jitter and low-frequency drift of the sensor line-of-sight (LOS) is the impact of background features, sensor parameters, LOS motion characteristics, and background suppression algorithms. In this paper, the spectra of LOS jitter caused by cryocoolers and momentum wheels are analyzed, and the time-related factors such as the jitter spectrum, the detector integration time, the frame period, and the temporal differencing background suppression algorithm are considered comprehensively; they are combined into a background-independent jitter-equivalent angle model. A jitter-caused clutter model in the form of multiplying the background radiation intensity gradient statistics by the jitter-equivalent angle is established. This model has good versatility and high efficiency and is suitable for the quantitative evaluation of clutter and the iterative optimization of sensor design. Based on satellite ground vibration experiments and on-orbit measured image sequences, the jitter-caused clutter and drift-caused clutter models are verified. The relative deviation between the model calculation and the actual measurement results is less than 20%. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Imaging and Sensing in Optics and Photonics)

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14 pages, 2522 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Wide-Angular Tolerance Optical Filter Design and Its Application to Green Pepper Segmentation

by Jun Yu, Shu Zhan and Toru Kurihara

Sensors 2023, 23(6), 2981; https://doi.org/10.3390/s23062981 - 9 Mar 2023

Viewed by 1818

Abstract

The optical filter is critical in many applications requiring wide-angle imaging perception. However, the transmission curve of the typical optical filter will change at an oblique incident angle due to the optical path of the incident light change. In this study, we propose [...] Read more.

The optical filter is critical in many applications requiring wide-angle imaging perception. However, the transmission curve of the typical optical filter will change at an oblique incident angle due to the optical path of the incident light change. In this study, we propose a wide-angular tolerance optical filter design method based on the transfer matrix method and automatic differentiation. A novel optical merit function is proposed for simultaneous optimization at normal and oblique incidents. The simulation results demonstrate that such a wide-angular tolerance design can realize a similar transmittance curve at an oblique incident angle compared to a normal incident angle. Furthermore, how much improvement in a wide-angular optical filter design for oblique incident contributes to image segmentation remains unclear. Therefore, we evaluate several transmittance curves along with the U-Net structure for green pepper segmentation. Although our proposed method is not perfectly equal to the target design, it can achieve an average 50% smaller mean absolute error (MAE) than the original design at

20^{\circ}

oblique incident angle. In addition, the green pepper segmentation results show that wide-angular tolerance optical filter design improves the segmentation of the near-color object about 0.3% at

20^{\circ}

oblique incident angle compared to the previous design. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Imaging and Sensing in Optics and Photonics)

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13 pages, 33025 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Multiparametric Remote Investigation in the near-IR through Optical Fiber for In Situ Measurements

by Letizia Fede, Gregory Lefrere, Maroun Hjeij, Ronan Le Page, Luiz Poffo, Jean-Marc Goujon and Aymeric Le Gratiet

Sensors 2023, 23(6), 2911; https://doi.org/10.3390/s23062911 - 7 Mar 2023

Viewed by 1665

Abstract

Diffuse reflectance spectroscopy (DRS) has proven to be a powerful, reliable, and non-invasive optical method for characterizing a specimen. Nevertheless, these methods are based on a rudimentary interpretation of the spectral response and can be irrelevant to understanding 3D structures. In this work, [...] Read more.

Diffuse reflectance spectroscopy (DRS) has proven to be a powerful, reliable, and non-invasive optical method for characterizing a specimen. Nevertheless, these methods are based on a rudimentary interpretation of the spectral response and can be irrelevant to understanding 3D structures. In this work, we proposed adding optical modalities into a customized handheld probe head in order to increase the number of parameters in DRS acquired from the light/matter interaction. It consists of (1) placing the sample in a reflectance manual rotation stage to collect spectral backscattered angularly resolved light and (2) illuminating it with two sequential linear polarization orientations. We demonstrate that this innovative approach leads to a compact instrument, capable of performing fast polarization-resolved spectroscopic analysis. Due to the significant amount of data available with this technique in a short time, we observe sensitive quantitative discrimination between two types of biological tissue provided by a raw rabbit leg. We believe that this technique can pave the way for rapid meat quality check or biomedical diagnosis of pathological tissues in situ at an early stage. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Imaging and Sensing in Optics and Photonics)

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16 pages, 4027 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Hybrid Vibration and UV Fluorescence Technology for Rapid Imaging and Guidance for Manual Removal of Fish Bones from Fish Floss

by Yen-Hsiang Wang, Kuan-Chieh Lee, Wen-Chun Wei, Chung-Huang Wang, Hao-Jie Liu, Jia-Rong Hou, Tien-Chen Hsieh, Ju-Kai Chen, Ting-Yuan Chen, Shien-Kuei Liaw, Choa-Feng Lin, Chin-Cheng Wu, Jen-Jie Chieh and Chin-Hung Chang

Sensors 2022, 22(22), 8978; https://doi.org/10.3390/s22228978 - 20 Nov 2022

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2153

Abstract

The objective of the proposed human–machine cooperation (HMC) workstation is to both rapidly detect calcium-based fish bones in masses of minced fish floss and visually guide operators in approaching and removing the detected fish bones by hand based on the detection of fingernails [...] Read more.

The objective of the proposed human–machine cooperation (HMC) workstation is to both rapidly detect calcium-based fish bones in masses of minced fish floss and visually guide operators in approaching and removing the detected fish bones by hand based on the detection of fingernails or plastic-based gloves. Because vibration is a separation mechanism that can prevent absorption or scattering in thick fish floss for UV fluorescence detection, the design of the HMC workstation included a vibration unit together with an optical box and display screens. The system was tested with commonly used fish (swordfish, salmon, tuna, and cod) representing various cooking conditions (raw meat, steam-cooked meat, and fish floss), their bones, and contaminating materials such as derived from gloves made of various types of plastic (polyvinylchloride, emulsion, and rubber) commonly used in the removal of fish bones. These aspects were each investigated using the spectrum analyzer and the optical box to obtain and analyze the fluorescence spectra and images. The filter was mounted on a charge-coupled device, and its transmission-wavelength window was based on the characteristic band for fish bones observed in the spectra. Gray-level AI algorithm was utilized to generate white marker rectangles. The vibration unit supports two mechanisms of air and downstream separation to improve the imaging screening of fish bones inside the considerable flow of fish floss. Notably, under 310 nm ultraviolet B (UVB) excitation, the fluorescence peaks of the raw fillets, steam-cooked meat, and fish floss were observed at for bands at longer wavelengths (500–600 nm), whereas those of the calcium and plastic materials occurred in shorter wavelength bands (400–500 nm). Perfect accuracy of 100% was achieved with the detection of 20 fish bones in 2 kg of fish floss, and the long test time of around 10–12 min results from the manual removal of these fish bones. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Imaging and Sensing in Optics and Photonics)

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24 pages, 13336 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Precise Two-Dimensional Tilt Measurement Sensor with Double-Cylindrical Mirror Structure and Modified Mean-Shift Algorithm for a Confocal Microscopy System

by Zhiyi Wang, Tingyu Wang, Yongqiang Yang, Yukai Yang, Xiaotao Mi and Jianli Wang

Sensors 2022, 22(18), 6794; https://doi.org/10.3390/s22186794 - 8 Sep 2022

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 3265

Abstract

To improve the accuracy of three-dimensional (3D) surface contour measurements of freeform optics, a two-dimensional (2D) tilt measurement sensor for confocal microscopy (CM) systems is proposed based on a double-cylindrical mirror structure. First, the proposed system is accurately modeled. Second, we introduce a [...] Read more.

To improve the accuracy of three-dimensional (3D) surface contour measurements of freeform optics, a two-dimensional (2D) tilt measurement sensor for confocal microscopy (CM) systems is proposed based on a double-cylindrical mirror structure. First, the proposed system is accurately modeled. Second, we introduce a modified mean–shift-based peak-extraction algorithm with a novel kernel function (MSN) because the reflectivity of the measured object and fluctuation of the light source affect the measurement accuracy. Third, a partition fitting (PF) strategy is proposed to reduce the fitting error and improve the measurement accuracy. Simulations and experiments reveal that the robustness, speed, and angular prediction accuracy of the system effectively improved as a function of MSN and PF. The developed sensor can measure the 2D tilt, where each tilt is a composition of two separate dimensions, and the mean prediction errors in the 2D plane from −10°–+10° are 0.0134° (0.067% full scale (F.S)) and 0.0142° (0.071% F.S). The sensor enables the optical probe of a traditional CM to obtain accurate and simultaneous estimates of the 2D inclination angle and spatial position coordinates of the measured surface. The proposed sensor has potential in 3D topographic reconstruction and dynamic sampling rate optimization for 3D contour detection. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Imaging and Sensing in Optics and Photonics)

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13 pages, 3417 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Jitter-Robust Phase Retrieval Wavefront Sensing Algorithms

by Liang Guo, Guohao Ju, Boqian Xu, Xiaoquan Bai, Qingyu Meng, Fengyi Jiang and Shuyan Xu

Sensors 2022, 22(15), 5584; https://doi.org/10.3390/s22155584 - 26 Jul 2022

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1919

Abstract

Phase retrieval wavefront sensing methods are now of importance for imaging quality maintenance of space telescopes. However, their accuracy is susceptible to line-of-sight jitter due to the micro-vibration of the platform, which changes the intensity distribution of the image. The effect of the [...] Read more.

Phase retrieval wavefront sensing methods are now of importance for imaging quality maintenance of space telescopes. However, their accuracy is susceptible to line-of-sight jitter due to the micro-vibration of the platform, which changes the intensity distribution of the image. The effect of the jitter shows some stochastic properties and it is hard to present an analytic solution to this problem. This paper establishes a framework for jitter-robust image-based wavefront sensing algorithm, which utilizes two-dimensional Gaussian convolution to describe the effect of jitter on an image. On this basis, two classes of jitter-robust phase retrieval algorithms are proposed, which can be categorized into iterative-transform algorithms and parametric algorithms, respectively. Further discussions are presented for the cases where the magnitude of jitter is unknown to us. Detailed simulations and a real experiment are performed to demonstrate the effectiveness and practicality of the proposed approaches. This work improves the accuracy and practicality of the phase retrieval wavefront sensing methods in the space condition with non-ignorable micro-vibration. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Imaging and Sensing in Optics and Photonics)

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Review

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24 pages, 8108 KiB

Open AccessReview

A Review of Microsphere Super-Resolution Imaging Techniques

by Wenbo Jiang, Jingchun Wang, Yidi Yang and Yun Bu

Sensors 2024, 24(8), 2511; https://doi.org/10.3390/s24082511 - 14 Apr 2024

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2806

Abstract

Conventional optical microscopes are only able to resolve objects down to a size of approximately 200 nm due to optical diffraction limits. The rapid development of nanotechnology has increased the demand for greater imaging resolution, with a need to break through those diffraction [...] Read more.

Conventional optical microscopes are only able to resolve objects down to a size of approximately 200 nm due to optical diffraction limits. The rapid development of nanotechnology has increased the demand for greater imaging resolution, with a need to break through those diffraction limits. Among super-resolution techniques, microsphere imaging has emerged as a strong contender, offering low cost, simple operation, and high resolution, especially in the fields of nanodevices, biomedicine, and semiconductors. However, this technology is still in its infancy, with an inadequate understanding of the underlying principles and the technology’s limited field of view. This paper comprehensively summarizes the status of current research, the advantages and disadvantages of the basic principles and methods of microsphere imaging, the materials and preparation processes, microsphere manipulation methods, and applications. The paper also summarizes future development trends. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Imaging and Sensing in Optics and Photonics)

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