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Emerging Pollutants in the Environment: Occurrence, Fate, Risk Assessment and Degradation Methods

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A special issue of Toxics (ISSN 2305-6304). This special issue belongs to the section "Emerging Contaminants".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (30 June 2024) | Viewed by 13076

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Special Issue Editors

Dr. Yuning Ma

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Guest Editor

College of Environmental & Resource Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China
Interests: environmental fate; transport mechanisms

Dr. Qingwei Bu

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Guest Editor

School of Chemical & Environmental Engineering, China University of Mining & Technology, Beijing, China
Interests: environmental monitoring; modeling; remediation

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

This Special Issue of Toxics aims at updating the current knowledge on emerging pollutants in the environment, regarding their occurrence, fate, risk assessment, and degradation methods.

Emerging pollutants are defined as chemicals that are not currently regulated but of ecological or human health concerns, including, but not limited to, endocrine-disrupting compounds, pharmaceutical and personal care products, disinfection by-products, microplastics, and persistent organic chemicals, etc., as well as their degradation products found in air, water, soil, and food sources.

We encourage papers addressing advancements that facilitate the understanding of the occurrence, distribution, and fate of emerging pollutants in the environment; perspectives on the ecotoxicology, epidemiology, exposome, metabolism, and risk assessment of novel contaminants; as well as research exploring technology that exploits methods to reduce and control their environmental presence.

Dr. Yuning Ma
Dr. Qingwei Bu
Guest Editors

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Keywords

persistent organic pollutants
plasticizers
chlorinated paraffins
food contact materials
flame retardants
per and polyfluorinated substances
endocrine disrupting compounds
pharmaceuticals
personal care products
toxicology and epidemiology

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Published Papers (10 papers)

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12 pages, 1850 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Biodegradation of the Antiretroviral Tenofovir Disoproxil by a Cyanobacteria/Bacterial Culture

by Sandra Regina Silva, Gabriel Souza-Silva, Carolina Paula de Souza Moreira, Olívia Maria de Sousa Ribeiro Vasconcelos, Micheline Rosa Silveira, Francisco Antonio Rodrigues Barbosa, Sergia Maria Starling Magalhães and Marcos Paulo Gomes Mol

Toxics 2024, 12(10), 729; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics12100729 - 10 Oct 2024

Viewed by 574

Abstract

Tenofovir disoproxil fumarate (TDF) is an antiretroviral drug extensively used by people living with HIV. The TDF molecule is hydrolysed in vivo and liberates tenofovir, the active part of the molecule. Tenofovir is a very stable drug and the discharge of its residues into the environment can potentially lead to risk for aquatic species. This study evaluated the TDF biodegradation and removal by cultures of Microcystis novacekii with the bacteria Pseudomonas pseudoalcaligenes. Concentrations of TDF of 12.5, 25.0, and 50.0 mg/L were used in this study. The process occurred in two stages. In the first 72 h, TDF was de-esterified, forming the tenofovir monoester intermediate by abiotic and enzymatic processes associated in an extracellular medium. In a second step, the monoester was removed from the culture medium by intracellular processes. The tenofovir or other by-products of TDF were not observed in the test conditions. At the end of the experiment, 88.7 to 94.1% of TDF and its monoester derivative were removed from the culture medium over 16 days. This process showed higher efficiency of TDF removal at the concentration of 25 mg/L. Tenofovir isoproxil monoester has partial antiviral activity and has shown to be persistent, maintaining a residual concentration after 16 days in the culture medium, therefore indicating the need to continue research on methods for total removal of this product from the aquatic environment. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Emerging Pollutants in the Environment: Occurrence, Fate, Risk Assessment and Degradation Methods)

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15 pages, 1493 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Temporal Variation and Industry-Specific Differences of the Use of Volatile Organic Compounds from 2018 to 2023 and Their Health Risks in a Typical Industrially Concentrated Area in South China

by Yijia Guo, Lihua Zhu, Liyin Zhang, Xinxin Tang, Xinjie Li, Yiming Ge, Feng Li, Jilong Yang, Shaoyou Lu, Jinru Chen and Xiaotao Zhou

Toxics 2024, 12(9), 634; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics12090634 - 29 Aug 2024

Viewed by 840

Abstract

The risk of occupational exposure to organic solvents varies across industries due to factors such as processing materials, ventilation conditions, and exposure duration. Given the dynamic nature of organic solvent use and occupational exposures, continuous monitoring and analysis are essential for identifying high-risk hazards and developing targeted prevention strategies. Therefore, this study aims to analyze the use of organic solvents and volatile organic compounds (VOCs) in different industries in Bao’an District, Shenzhen, China, from 2018 to 2023, to understand their temporal variation and industry-specific differences and to identify high-risk occupational hazards. This study includes 1335 organic solvent samples, used by 414 different industry enterprises, and 1554 air samples. The result shows that the usage of organic solvents in various industries decreased with the outbreak of the pandemic and, conversely, increased as the situation improved. The most frequently detected volatile components in organic solvents were alkanes, followed by aromatic hydrocarbons. The ratios of the detection frequency of VOCs to the total number of detected categories increased year by year after 2020, indicating a tendency towards reduction and concentration of the types of organic solvents used in industrial production. Among the 8 high-risk VOCs, toluene (22.5%), n-hexane (22.0%), xylene (16.1%), and ethylbenzene (15.3%) have relatively high detection rates, suggesting that they need to be focused on in occupational health. Through air samples, the results show that trichloroethylene and xylene pose a high risk to human health (HQ > 1). We recommend that industry should strengthen monitoring of these two VOCs. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Emerging Pollutants in the Environment: Occurrence, Fate, Risk Assessment and Degradation Methods)

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11 pages, 1346 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Bisphenol Chemicals in Surface Soil from E-Waste Dismantling Facilities and the Surrounding Areas: Spatial Distribution and Health Risk

by Lei Zhao, Fengli Zhou, Shuyue Wang, Yan Yang, Haojia Chen, Xufang Ma and Xiaotu Liu

Toxics 2024, 12(6), 379; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics12060379 - 23 May 2024

Viewed by 742

Abstract

Electronic waste (e-waste) dismantling facilities are well-known bisphenol chemical (BP) sources. In this study, non-targeted screening combined with targeted analysis of BPs in surface soil from e-waste dismantling facilities and their surroundings revealed their presence, distribution, and exposure risk. A total of 14 BPs were identified including bisphenol A (BPA) and its novel structural analogs and halogenated BPs. The total concentrations of BPs ranged from 963 to 47,160 ng/g (median: 6970 ng/g) in e-waste soil, higher than those measured in surface soil from surrounding areas, i.e., 10–7750 ng/g (median 197 ng/g). BPA, tetrabromobisphenol A (TBBPA), and bisphenol F (BPF) were the dominant ones from the two areas. Concentrations of TBBPA and its debromination product from the surrounding area significantly decreased with increasing distances from the e-waste dismantling facilities. Estimation of daily intake via oral ingestion of soil suggests that current contamination scenarios are unlikely to pose health risks for e-waste dismantling workers and adults and toddlers living in the surrounding areas, with their intakes generally well below the tolerable daily intakes proposed for several BPs. However, the BPA intakes of workers exceeded the more strict tolerable daily intake for BPA established recently, which merits continuous environmental surveillance. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Emerging Pollutants in the Environment: Occurrence, Fate, Risk Assessment and Degradation Methods)

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20 pages, 4447 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Emerging Contaminants in the Effluent of Wastewater Should Be Regulated: Which and to What Extent?

by Weiwei Yang, Qingwei Bu, Qianhui Shi, Ruiqing Zhao, Haitao Huang, Lei Yang, Jianfeng Tang and Yuning Ma

Toxics 2024, 12(5), 309; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics12050309 - 24 Apr 2024

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1197

Abstract

Effluent discharged from urban wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) is a major source of emerging contaminants (ECs) requiring effective regulation. To this end, we collected discharge datasets of pharmaceuticals (PHACs) and endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs), representing two primary categories of ECs, from Chinese WWTP effluent from 2012 to 2022 to establish an exposure database. Moreover, high-risk ECs’ long-term water quality criteria (LWQC) were derived using the species sensitivity distribution (SSD) method. A total of 140 ECs (124 PHACs and 16 EDCs) were identified, with concentrations ranging from N.D. (not detected) to 706 μg/L. Most data were concentrated in coastal regions and Gansu, with high ecological risk observed in Gansu, Hebei, Shandong, Guangdong, and Hong Kong. Using the assessment factor (AF) method, 18 high-risk ECs requiring regulation were identified. However, only three of them, namely carbamazepine, ibuprofen, and bisphenol-A, met the derivation requirements of the SSD method. The LWQC for these three ECs were determined as 96.4, 1010, and 288 ng/L, respectively. Exposure data for carbamazepine and bisphenol-A surpassed their derived LWQC, indicating a need for heightened attention to these contaminants. This study elucidates the occurrence and risks of ECs in Chinese WWTPs and provides theoretical and data foundations for EC management in urban sewage facilities. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Emerging Pollutants in the Environment: Occurrence, Fate, Risk Assessment and Degradation Methods)

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11 pages, 736 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Dimethylcyclosiloxanes in Mobile Smart Terminal Devices: Concentrations, Distributions, Profiles, and Environmental Emissions

by Yuanna Xing, Yiming Ge, Shaoyou Lu, Tao Yang and Xianzhi Peng

Toxics 2024, 12(4), 287; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics12040287 - 13 Apr 2024

Viewed by 1168

Abstract

Dimethylcyclosiloxanes (DMCs) are utilized as vital monomers in the synthesis of organosilicon compounds, integral to the manufacture of mobile smart terminal devices. Toxicological studies have revealed potential endocrine-disrupting activity, reproductive toxicity, neurotoxicity, and other toxicities of the DMCs. This study investigated the concentrations and composition profiles of seven DMCs, including hexamethylcyclotrisiloxane (D3), octamethylcyclotetrasiloxane (D4), decamethylcyclopentasiloxane (D5), dodecamethylcyclohexasiloxane (D6), and tetradecamethylcycloheptasiloxane (D7), hexadecamethylcyclooctasiloxane (D8), and octadecamethylcyclononasiloxane (D9) in three types of mobile smart terminal device components (silicone rubber, adhesive, and plastics). Environmental emissions of DMCs from silicone rubber materials were also estimated to improve the recognition of their potential fate within the environment. D5–D9 were widely present in silicone rubber and adhesives with detection rates ranging from 91–95.5% and 50–100%, respectively, while D3 and D4 were more frequently detected in plastics, both showing a detection rate of 61.1%. Silicone rubber had the highest total DMCs (∑7DMCs) and a concentration of 802.2 mg/kg, which were dominated by D7, D8, and D9. DMCs detected in adhesives were dominated by D4, D5, and D6. The estimated emission of ∑DMCs released into the environment in China from silicone rubber used in mobile smart terminal devices exceeds 5000 tons per year. Further studies are needed on the presence of DMCs in various commodities and environmental media to assess their ecological and human health impacts, as well as the toxicological effects of D7–D9 for the appropriate regulation of these chemicals. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Emerging Pollutants in the Environment: Occurrence, Fate, Risk Assessment and Degradation Methods)

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13 pages, 2142 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Bisphenols in Aquatic Products from South China: Implications for Human Exposure

by Yinhai Chen, Xiurong Chen, Wenchi Lin, Jinghong Chen, Yuejun Zhu and Zhanghong Guo

Toxics 2024, 12(2), 154; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics12020154 - 16 Feb 2024

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1296

Abstract

In this study, 245 representative samples of aquatic products were selected from local markets in Shenzhen by stochastic sampling. The samples comprised eight species and fell into three aquatic product categories: fish, crustaceans, and bivalves. A total of eight BPs were determined by liquid chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry, namely, bisphenol A (BPA), bisphenol AF (BPAF), bisphenol AP (BPAP), bisphenol B (BPB), bisphenol S (BPS), bisphenol P (BPP), bisphenol Z (BPZ), and bisphenol F (BPF). All BPs were detected in aquatic products, except for BPAF, indicating pervasive contamination by BPs in aquatic products. BPS demonstrated the highest detection rate both before and after enzymatic hydrolysis, whereas BPAP exhibited the lowest detection rate before enzymatic hydrolysis and BPB displayed the lowest detection rate after enzymatic hydrolysis. The concentration difference before and after enzymatic hydrolysis proved to be statistically significant. Moreover, 49–96% of BPs in aquatic products were found in the combined state, underscoring the essentiality of conducting detections on aquatic product samples following enzymatic hydrolysis. While the health risks associated with ingesting BPs residues through aquatic product consumption were found to be minimal for residents at risk of exposure, the results suggest the necessity for more stringent regulations governing the consumption of aquatic products. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Emerging Pollutants in the Environment: Occurrence, Fate, Risk Assessment and Degradation Methods)

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18 pages, 15708 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Adsorption Behavior and Kinetics of 1,4-Dioxane by Carbon Aerogel

by Tianyu Lu, Huihui Huang, Guifen Lv, Fei Li, Ren-jie Song and Yuting Cai

Toxics 2024, 12(2), 145; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics12020145 - 12 Feb 2024

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1432

Abstract

1,4-dioxane is a potential carcinogen in water and is difficult to deal with due to its robust cycloether bond and complete miscibility with water. To remove 1,4-dioxane in an economically viable and environmentally friendly way, a series of carbon aerogels were synthesized as adsorbents for 1,4-dioxane. The experiment results showed that adsorption performances were closely related to the preparation conditions of carbon aerogels, such as the molar ratio, heating rate, pyrolysis temperature and residence time, which were carefully controlled. Scanning electron microscope analysis revealed the presence of a three-dimensional porous network structure in carbon aerogels. Brunauer–Emmett–Teller analysis results demonstrated an increase in specific surface area (673.89 m²/g) and total pore volume after carbonization, with an increase in mesoporous porosity and a decrease in microporosity. When considering each variable individually, the highest specific surface area of prepared carbon aerogels was achieved at a pyrolysis temperature of 800 °C, a holding time of 1 h, and a heating rate of 2 °C/min. Under optimal experimental conditions, the adsorption removal of 1,4-dioxane by carbon aerogels exceeded 95%, following quasi-second-order kinetics and Langmuir isothermal adsorption isotherms, indicating that monolayer adsorption on the surface of carbon aerogels occurred. The maximum adsorption capacity obtained was 67.28 mg/g at a temperature of 318 K, which was attributed to the presence of a large proportion of mesopores and abundant micropores simultaneously in carbon aerogels. Furthermore, with the interference of chlorinated solvents such as trichloroethylene (TCE), the removal efficiency of 1,4-dioxane had no obvious inhibition effect. Regeneration experiments showed that after five continuous cycles, the carbon aerogels still kept a comparable adsorption capacity, which illustrates its potential application in 1,4-dioxane-polluted water purification. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Emerging Pollutants in the Environment: Occurrence, Fate, Risk Assessment and Degradation Methods)

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18 pages, 7812 KiB

Open AccessArticle

SiO₂–TiO₂ Nanoparticle Aqueous Foam for Volatile Organic Compounds’ Suppression

by Jintao Yu and Yuning Xuan

Toxics 2024, 12(2), 99; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics12020099 - 23 Jan 2024

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1509

Abstract

Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) are prevalent soil contaminants. During the ex situ soil remediation process, VOCs may overflow from the soil and cause gas to diffuse into the atmosphere. Moreover, some VOCs, such as trichloromethane, are categorized by the EPA as emerging contaminants, imparting toxicity to organs, and the endocrine and immune systems, and posing a huge threat to human health and the environment. To reduce VOCs’ emissions from contaminated soil, aqueous foam suppression is a prospective method that provides a durable mass transfer barrier for VOCs, and it has been widely used in odor control. Based on an aqueous foam substrate, in order to enhance the foam’s stability and efficiency of suppression, SiO₂–TiO₂-modified nanoparticles have been used as stabilizing agents to improve the mechanical strength of liquid film. The nanoparticles are endowed with the ability to photocatalyze after the introduction of titanium dioxide. From SEM imaging, IR, and a series of morphological characterization experiments, the dispersibility of the SiO₂–TiO₂-modified nanoparticles was significantly improved under the polar solvent, which, in turn, increased the foam duration. The foam dynamic analysis experiments showed that the foam liquid half-life was increased by 4.08 h, and the volume half-life was increased by 4.44 h after adding the novel synthesized nanoparticles to the bulk foam substrate. From the foam VOC suppression test, foam with modified nanoparticles was more efficient in terms of VOCs’ suppression, in contrast with its nanoparticle-free counterparts, due to the longer retention time. Moreover, in a bench-scale experiment, the SiO₂–TiO₂ nanoparticles foam worked against dichloroethane, n–hexane, and toluene for almost 12 h, with a 90% suppression rate, under UV irradiation, which was 2~6 h longer than that of UV-free SiO₂–TiO₂ nanoparticles, the KH–570-modified nanosilica foam, and the nanoparticle-free bulk foam. XPS and XRD results indicate that in SiO₂–TiO₂ nanoparticles, the proportion of titanium valence was changed, providing more oxygen vacancies compared to raw titanium dioxides. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Emerging Pollutants in the Environment: Occurrence, Fate, Risk Assessment and Degradation Methods)

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16 pages, 3618 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Distribution Characteristics and Risk Assessment of 57 Pesticides in Farmland Soil and the Surrounding Water

by Weiqing Wang, Donghong Wang, Quanzhen Liu, Lihua Lin, Yongchang Xie and Chuan Du

Toxics 2024, 12(1), 85; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics12010085 - 18 Jan 2024

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1467

Abstract

To investigate the effect of pesticide use on surface water, the concentration and distribution characteristics of 57 pesticides and 3 degradation products were analyzed in the farmland soil and surface water in the Xingkai Lake area, including water from paddy fields, drainages and the Xingkai Lake, in Heilongjiang Province, China. Forty-three pesticides and three degradation products were detected in farmland soil. In dry field (corn and soybean field) soil, the main detected pesticides were atrazine and acetochlor with mean concentrations of 26.09 ng·g⁻¹ and 49.08 ng·g⁻¹, respectively. In paddy field soil, oxadiazon, mefenacet and chlorpyrifos were the main detected pesticides with mean concentrations of 14.32 ng·g⁻¹, 78.60 ng·g⁻¹ and 20.03 ng·g⁻¹, respectively. In the surrounding water, including water from paddy fields, drainages and Xingkai Lake, the total concentrations of contaminants detected in the water samples ranged from 71.19 ng·L⁻¹ to 10,145.76 ng·L⁻¹. Of the three sampling periods, the mean concentration of contaminants in the water exhibited its peak during the vegetative period. In the analysis of the drainage water, the primary pesticides detected were atrazine, acetochlor and buprofezin with mean concentrations of 354.83 ng·L⁻¹, 109.09 ng·L⁻¹ and 254.56 ng·L⁻¹, respectively. Atrazine, simetryn, buprofezin and isoprothiolane were the main pesticides detected in Xingkai Lake water, with the mean concentrations of 222.35 ng·L⁻¹, 112.76 ng·L⁻¹, 301.87 ng·L⁻¹ and 138.02 ng·L⁻¹, respectively. The concentrations of contaminants could be correlated with drainage, Da Xingkai Lake and Xiao Xingkai Lake water (ρ > 0.8) suggested that the source of these contaminants in drainage and Xingkai Lake water could be the same. The maximum potentially affected fraction (PAF) values of atrazine, chlorpyrifos and prometryn were higher than 5% in Xingkai Lake water, resulting in high ecological risks. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Emerging Pollutants in the Environment: Occurrence, Fate, Risk Assessment and Degradation Methods)

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Review

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22 pages, 2339 KiB

Open AccessReview

A Review of the Distribution and Health Effect of Organophosphorus Flame Retardants in Indoor Environments

by Xingwei Song, Sheng Zhu, Ling Hu, Xiaojia Chen, Jiaqi Zhang, Yi Liu, Qingwei Bu and Yuning Ma

Toxics 2024, 12(3), 195; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics12030195 - 1 Mar 2024

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1859

Abstract

As a replacement for polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs), organophosphorus flame retardants (OPFRs) have been widely used and detected in different indoor environments all over the world. This paper comprehensively describes the concentration levels and distribution information of 11 kinds of OPFRs from 33 indoor dust and 10 air environments, from which TBOEP, TCIPP, and TDCIPP were observed to have higher concentrations in indoor environments. The ΣOPFRs displayed higher concentrations in indoor dust than in indoor air due to the higher molecular weight and vapor pressure of ΣOPFRs in building decoration materials, specifically for TCIPP and TDCIPP compounds. Considering that it is inevitable that people will be exposed to these chemicals in the indoor environments in which they work and live, we estimated their potential health risks through three human exposure pathways and found that the ingestion exposure to TBOEP for toddlers in Japan may reach up to 1270.80 ng/kg/day, which comprises a significant pathway compared to dermal contact and indoor air inhalation. Specifically, the combined total exposure to OPFRs by air inhalation, dust ingestion, and dermal contact was generally below the RfD values for both adults and toddlers, with a few notable higher exposures of some typical OPFRs. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Emerging Pollutants in the Environment: Occurrence, Fate, Risk Assessment and Degradation Methods)

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