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Viruses
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HIV-1 Infection and Immunometabolism: Relevance to HIV Pathogenesis and Persistence
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HIV-1 Infection and Immunometabolism: Relevance to HIV Pathogenesis and Persistence

A special issue of Viruses (ISSN 1999-4915). This special issue belongs to the section "Viral Immunology, Vaccines, and Antivirals".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (30 April 2022) | Viewed by 18903

Special Issue Editor

Dr. Sonia Moretti

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
National HIV/AIDS Research Center, Istituto Superiore di Sanità, 00161 Rome, Italy
Interests: infectious diseases; clinical virology; HIV infection; HIV persistence; immune responses to viral infections
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Despite the significant success of HIV treatments in blocking HIV-1 replication and in reducing AIDS-associated morbidity and mortality, these treatments do not fully inhibit HIV-1-related inflammation and chronic immune activation, and viral reservoirs persist for life. Recently, growing evidence has emphasized the interplay between immunometabolism, HIV-1 pathogenesis and viral persistence. Since metabolism control depends on signals that are deregulated during HIV-1 infection, people living with HIV, even under ART, show an increased rate of metabolic abnormalities that negatively impact the immune functions and contribute to viral pathogenesis and persistence. In fact, studies suggest that the metabolic pathways of CD4+ T cells and macrophages determine their susceptibility to HIV-1 infection, the persistence of infected cells and the establishment of latency. Moreover, metabolic abnormalities may further contribute to the development of non-AIDS-associated complications and comorbidities, such as cardiovascular disease, ageing, liver and kidney disease, neurocognitive impairment and non-AIDS malignancies. Thus, targeting metabolism may become a promising approach to modulate immune system and may lead to new therapeutic strategies against HIV and related complications.

For this Special Issue, research articles and review articles, as well as short communications, are welcome in order to provide new insights aimed at dissecting the role of immunometabolism in HIV pathogenesis and latency.

Dr. Sonia Moretti
Guest Editor

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Viruses is an international peer-reviewed open access monthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2600 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • immunometabolism
  • HIV-1
  • inflammation
  • immune activation
  • HIV pathogenesis
  • HIV latency
  • metabolic diseases
  • non-AIDS-associated comorbidities

Related Special Issue

Published Papers (9 papers)

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Research

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9 pages, 270 KiB  
Article
Adenovirus 36 Infection in People Living with HIV—An Epidemiological Study of Seroprevalence and Associations with Cardiovascular Risk Factors
by Mariusz Sapuła, Magdalena Suchacz, Joanna Kozłowska, Aneta Cybula, Ewa Siwak, Dagny Krankowska and Alicja Wiercińska-Drapało
Viruses 2022, 14(8), 1639; https://doi.org/10.3390/v14081639 - 27 Jul 2022
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1506
Abstract
Background. With the life expectancy of people living with HIV (PLHIV) rapidly approaching that of the general population, cardiovascular health in this group is as relevant as ever. Adenovirus 36 (Adv36) is one of the few viruses suspected to be a causative factor [...] Read more.
Background. With the life expectancy of people living with HIV (PLHIV) rapidly approaching that of the general population, cardiovascular health in this group is as relevant as ever. Adenovirus 36 (Adv36) is one of the few viruses suspected to be a causative factor in promoting obesity in humans, yet there is a lack of data on this infection in PLHIV. Methods. PLHIV on stable suppressive antiretroviral therapy were included in the study, with assessment of anthropometric measures, blood pressure, serum lipid levels, fasting serum glucose and insulin, non-classical serum cardiovascular risk markers related to inflammation (hsCRP, resistin, calprotectin), and anti-Adv36 antibodies during a routine check-up. Results. 91 participants were recruited, of which 26.4% were Adv36-seropositive (Adv36(+)). Compared to Adv36-seronegative (Adv36(−)) controls, Adv36(+) individuals had a lower waist circumference (Adv36(+) 89.6 ± 7.7 cm, Adv36(−) 95.5 ± 11.7 cm, p = 0.024) and a lower waist-to-hip ratio (Adv36(+) 0.88 ± 0.06, Adv36(−) 0.92 ± 0.09, p = 0.014), but this did not reach statistical significance in the multivariate analysis (p > 0.05). Adv36(+) participants were less likely to be on lipid-lowering treatment (Adv36(+) 12.5%, Adv36(−) 34.3%, p = 0.042), even after adjustment for relevant baseline characteristics (OR = 0.23, 95%CI = 0.04–0.91), but no differences in cholesterol or triglyceride levels were found. No other statistically significant associations were observed. Conclusions. We found no evidence to support the claim that past Adv36-infection is associated with an increased prevalence of cardiovascular risk factors or with elevated inflammatory markers in PLHIV. More research is needed to replicate these findings in other samples of PLHIV and to compare them with the HIV-negative population. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue HIV-1 Infection and Immunometabolism: Relevance to HIV Pathogenesis and Persistence)
8 pages, 257 KiB  
Article
Weight of Clinical and Social Determinants of Metabolic Syndrome in People Living with HIV
by Maria Mazzitelli, Paolo Fusco, Michele Brogna, Alfredo Vallone, Laura D’Argenio, Giuseppina Beradelli, Giuseppe Foti, Carmelo Mangano, Maria Stella Carpentieri, Lucio Cosco, Paolo Scerbo, Armando Priamo, Nicola Serrao, Antonio Mastroianni, Chiara Costa, Maria Teresa Tassone, Vincenzo Scaglione, Francesca Serapide, Enrico Maria Trecarichi and Carlo Torti
Viruses 2022, 14(6), 1339; https://doi.org/10.3390/v14061339 - 20 Jun 2022
Cited by 8 | Viewed by 1793
Abstract
Background. Comorbidities in people living with HIV (PLWH) represent a major clinical challenge today, and metabolic syndrome (MTBS) is one of the most important. Objective. Our objective was to assess the prevalence of MTBS and the role of both clinical/socio-behavioral risk factors for [...] Read more.
Background. Comorbidities in people living with HIV (PLWH) represent a major clinical challenge today, and metabolic syndrome (MTBS) is one of the most important. Objective. Our objective was to assess the prevalence of MTBS and the role of both clinical/socio-behavioral risk factors for MTBS in a cohort of PLWH. Methods. All PLWH, over 18 years of age, attending all Infectious Disease Units in Calabria Region (Southern Italy) for their routine checks from October 2019–January 2020 were enrolled. MTBS was defined by NCEP-ATP III criteria. Logistic regression analysis was performed to assess factors significantly associated with the main outcome (MTBS). Results. We enrolled 356 PLWH, mostly males (68.5%), with a mean age of 49 years (standard deviation: 12), including 98 subjects with and 258 without MTBS. At logistic regression analysis, a statistically significant association was found between MTBS and alcohol use, osteoporosis, polypharmacy, and a history of AIDS. Conclusions. Identifying and addressing risk factors, including those that are socio-behavioral or lifestyle-related, is crucial to prevent and treat MTBS. Our results suggest the importance of implementing educational/multidimensional interventions to prevent MTBS in PLWH, especially for those with particular risk factors (alcohol abuse, osteoporosis, previous AIDS events, and polypharmacy). Moreover, alcohol consumption or abuse should be routinely investigated in clinical practice. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue HIV-1 Infection and Immunometabolism: Relevance to HIV Pathogenesis and Persistence)
25 pages, 6093 KiB  
Article
Immunometabolic Reprogramming in Response to HIV Infection Is Not Fully Normalized by Suppressive Antiretroviral Therapy
by Pragney Deme, Leah H. Rubin, Danyang Yu, Yanxun Xu, Gertrude Nakigozi, Noeline Nakasujja, Aggrey Anok, Alice Kisakye, Thomas C. Quinn, Steven J. Reynolds, Richard Mayanja, James Batte, Maria J. Wawer, Ned C. Sacktor, Deanna Saylor and Norman J. Haughey
Viruses 2022, 14(6), 1313; https://doi.org/10.3390/v14061313 - 15 Jun 2022
Cited by 10 | Viewed by 2234
Abstract
Background: HIV infection results in immunometabolic reprogramming. While we are beginning to understand how this metabolic reprogramming regulates the immune response to HIV infection, we do not currently understand the impact of ART on immunometabolism in people with HIV (PWH). Methods: Serum obtained [...] Read more.
Background: HIV infection results in immunometabolic reprogramming. While we are beginning to understand how this metabolic reprogramming regulates the immune response to HIV infection, we do not currently understand the impact of ART on immunometabolism in people with HIV (PWH). Methods: Serum obtained from HIV-infected (n = 278) and geographically matched HIV seronegative control subjects (n = 300) from Rakai Uganda were used in this study. Serum was obtained before and ~2 years following the initiation of ART from HIV-infected individuals. We conducted metabolomics profiling of the serum and focused our analysis on metabolic substrates and pathways assocaited with immunometabolism. Results: HIV infection was associated with metabolic adaptations that implicated hyperactive glycolysis, enhanced formation of lactate, increased activity of the pentose phosphate pathway (PPP), decreased β-oxidation of long-chain fatty acids, increased utilization of medium-chain fatty acids, and enhanced amino acid catabolism. Following ART, serum levels of ketone bodies, carnitine, and amino acid metabolism were normalized, however glycolysis, PPP, lactate production, and β-oxidation of long-chain fatty acids remained abnormal. Conclusion: Our findings suggest that HIV infection is associated with an increased immunometabolic demand that is satisfied through the utilization of alternative energetic substrates, including fatty acids and amino acids. ART alone was insufficient to completely restore this metabolic reprogramming to HIV infection, suggesting that a sustained impairment of immunometabolism may contribute to chronic immune activation and comorbid conditions in virally suppressed PWH. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue HIV-1 Infection and Immunometabolism: Relevance to HIV Pathogenesis and Persistence)
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9 pages, 779 KiB  
Communication
Treatment Response and Drug Resistance Profiling of Genotype 6 of Hepatitis C Virus in HCV/HIV Co-Infected Patients: A Pilot Study from INDIA
by Ekta Gupta, Jasmine Samal, Amit Pandey, Gaurav Singh, Hajra A. S. Gupta, Reshu Agarwal and Manoj Kumar Sharma
Viruses 2022, 14(5), 944; https://doi.org/10.3390/v14050944 - 30 Apr 2022
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1988
Abstract
Hepatitis C Virus (HCV) genotype (GT) 6 demonstrates maximum genomic diversity out of all the known genotypes of HCV, attributable to its inherent intra-genotype and inter-genotype recombination property. This is the most common genotype seen in HCV/HIV co-infected cases. HIV/HCV co-infection is linked [...] Read more.
Hepatitis C Virus (HCV) genotype (GT) 6 demonstrates maximum genomic diversity out of all the known genotypes of HCV, attributable to its inherent intra-genotype and inter-genotype recombination property. This is the most common genotype seen in HCV/HIV co-infected cases. HIV/HCV co-infection is linked with increased genetic diversity in HCV structural genes. The detailed information on the distribution of HCV GT6, its subtypes, and resistance to currently available antiviral drugs is limited in the Indian subcontinent. Therefore, in this single-center retrospective cross-sectional study, we aimed to map the occurrence of HCV GT6, its subtypes and resistance-associated substitution (RAS), and its correlation with antiviral treatment response in HCV-infected patients. From a cohort of 2052 HCV-infected patients, the overall prevalence of GT6 was 2.5% (n = 53), with a maximum of 81.1% (n = 43) seen in HCV/HIV co-infected patients. Nine different subtypes, 6a, 6b, 6f, 6i, 6n, 6u, 6v, 6w, and 6xa, were detected in the Indian population for the first time, with a predominance of 6xa (41.5%), a rare subtype, followed by 6n (39.6%). The phylogenetic analysis by the neighbor-joining method revealed three prominent viral clades, 6v, 6n, and 6xa–6u. The baseline (before treatment initiation) plasma samples of all GT6-infected patients were retrieved from −80 °C and a part of the NS5a and NS5b region of the viral genome was analyzed for the presence of RAS. No RASs were seen in the NS5b region, while in two patients (3.7%) RASs were seen at baseline in the NS5a region of the virus. Sustained viral response (SVR) was attained in 81% (n = 43) of patients. No difference in GT6 subtype distribution or occurrence of RAS was seen between mono-infected HCV and HIV/HCV co-infected cases. Our study revealed that RAS at baseline did not influence the attainment of SVR and the currently available antiviral therapy is effective against GT6 mono-infected and HIV/HCV co-infected patients. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue HIV-1 Infection and Immunometabolism: Relevance to HIV Pathogenesis and Persistence)
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11 pages, 422 KiB  
Article
VCAM-1 as a Biomarker of Endothelial Function among HIV-Infected Patients Receiving and Not Receiving Antiretroviral Therapy
by Agnieszka Lembas, Katarzyna Zawartko, Mariusz Sapuła, Tomasz Mikuła, Joanna Kozłowska and Alicja Wiercińska-Drapało
Viruses 2022, 14(3), 578; https://doi.org/10.3390/v14030578 - 11 Mar 2022
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 1812
Abstract
The Human Immunodeficiency Virus and retroviral therapy are both known risk factors for cardiovascular disease. It remains an open question whether HIV or ARV leads to increased arterial inflammation. The objective of this study was to investigate the changes in endothelial activation by [...] Read more.
The Human Immunodeficiency Virus and retroviral therapy are both known risk factors for cardiovascular disease. It remains an open question whether HIV or ARV leads to increased arterial inflammation. The objective of this study was to investigate the changes in endothelial activation by measuring VCAM-1 levels among HIV-infected patients who were and were not treated with antiretroviral therapy. It is a retrospective study that included 68 HIV-infected patients, 23 of whom were never antiretroviral-treated, 15 who were ART-treated for no longer than a year, and 30 who were ART-treated for longer than a year. Blood samples were collected for biochemical analysis of the concentration of VCAM-1. The results show a statistically lower VCAM-1 level (p = 0.007) in patients treated with ART longer than a year (1442 ng/mL) in comparison to treatment-naïve patients (2392 ng/mL). The average VCAM-1 level in patients treated no longer than a year (1552 ng/mL) was also lower than in treatment-naïve patients, but with no statistical significance (p = 0.096). Long-term antiretroviral therapy was associated with the decline of VCAM-1 concentration. That may suggest the lowering of endothelial activation and the decreased risk of the development of cardiovascular disease among ARV-treated patients. However, VCAM-1 may not be a sufficient factor itself to assess this, since simultaneously there are a lot of well-known cardiovascular-adverse effects of ART. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue HIV-1 Infection and Immunometabolism: Relevance to HIV Pathogenesis and Persistence)
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15 pages, 284 KiB  
Article
Impact of HCV Eradication on Lipid Metabolism in HIV/HCV Coinfected Patients: Data from ICONA and HepaICONA Foundation Cohort Study
by Martina Spaziante, Gloria Taliani, Giulia Marchetti, Alessandro Tavelli, Miriam Lichtner, Antonella Cingolani, Stefania Cicalini, Elisa Biliotti, Enrico Girardi, Andrea Antinori, Massimo Puoti, Antonella d’Arminio Monforte and Alessandro Cozzi-Lepri
Viruses 2021, 13(7), 1402; https://doi.org/10.3390/v13071402 - 19 Jul 2021
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2131
Abstract
Objectives: HCV shows complex interactions with lipid metabolism. Our aim was to examine total cholesterol (TC) and low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C) changes in HIV/HCV coinfected patients, after achieving sustained virological response (SVR), according to different HCV genotypes and specific antiretroviral use. Methods: HIV/HCV [...] Read more.
Objectives: HCV shows complex interactions with lipid metabolism. Our aim was to examine total cholesterol (TC) and low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C) changes in HIV/HCV coinfected patients, after achieving sustained virological response (SVR), according to different HCV genotypes and specific antiretroviral use. Methods: HIV/HCV coinfected patients, enrolled in the ICONA and HepaICONA cohorts, who achieved DAA-driven SVR were included. Paired t-tests were used to examine whether the pre- and post-SVR laboratory value variations were significantly different from zero. ANCOVA regression models were employed to estimate the causal effect of SVR and of PI/r use on lipid changes. The interaction between the effect of eradication and HCV genotype was formally tested. Results: six hundred and ninety-nine HIV/HCV coinfected patients were enrolled. After HCV eradication, a significant improvement in liver function occurred, with a significant decrease in AST, ALT, GGT, and total plasmatic bilirubin. TC and LDL-C significantly increased by 21.4 mg/dL and 22.4 mg/dL, respectively (p < 0.001), after SVR, whereas there was no evidence for a change in HDL-C (p = 0.45) and triglycerides (p = 0.49). Notably, the TC and LDL-C increase was higher for participants who were receiving darunavir/ritonavir, and the TC showed a more pronounced increase among HCV genotype 3 patients (interaction-p value = 0.002). Conclusions: complex and rapid changes in TC and LDL-C levels, modulated by HCV genotype and PI/r-based ART combinations, occurred in HIV/HCV coinfected patients after SVR. Further studies are needed to evaluate the clinical impact of these changes on the long-term risk of cardiovascular disease. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue HIV-1 Infection and Immunometabolism: Relevance to HIV Pathogenesis and Persistence)

Review

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8 pages, 968 KiB  
Review
The Role of Immunometabolism in HIV-1 Pathogenicity: Links to Immune Cell Responses
by Eman Teer, Nyasha C. Mukonowenzou and M. Faadiel Essop
Viruses 2022, 14(8), 1813; https://doi.org/10.3390/v14081813 - 18 Aug 2022
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2400
Abstract
With the successful roll-out of combination antiretroviral treatment, HIV is currently managed as a chronic illness. Of note, immune activation and chronic inflammation are hallmarks of HIV-1 infection that persists even though patients are receiving treatments. Despite strong evidence linking immune activation and [...] Read more.
With the successful roll-out of combination antiretroviral treatment, HIV is currently managed as a chronic illness. Of note, immune activation and chronic inflammation are hallmarks of HIV-1 infection that persists even though patients are receiving treatments. Despite strong evidence linking immune activation and low-grade inflammation to HIV-1 pathogenesis, the underlying mechanisms remain less well-understood. As intracellular metabolism is emerging as a crucial factor determining the fate and activity of immune cells, this review article focuses on how links between early immune responses and metabolic reprograming may contribute to HIV pathogenicity. Here, the collective data reveal that immunometabolism plays a key role in HIV-1 pathogenesis. For example, the shift from quiescent immune cells to its activation leads to perturbed metabolic circuits that are major drivers of immune cell dysfunction and an altered phenotype. These findings suggest that immunometabolic perturbations play a key role in the onset of non-AIDS-associated comorbidities and that they represent an attractive target to develop improved diagnostic tools and novel therapeutic strategies to help blunt HIV-1 pathogenesis. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue HIV-1 Infection and Immunometabolism: Relevance to HIV Pathogenesis and Persistence)
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9 pages, 459 KiB  
Brief Report
Plasma Neurofilament Light Is Not Associated with Ongoing Neuroaxonal Injury or Cognitive Decline in Perinatally HIV Infected Adolescents: A Brief Report
by Julie van der Post, Jason G. van Genderen, Johannes A. Heijst, Charlotte Blokhuis, Charlotte E. Teunissen and Dasja Pajkrt
Viruses 2022, 14(4), 671; https://doi.org/10.3390/v14040671 - 24 Mar 2022
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1517
Abstract
Despite combination antiretroviral therapy (cART), adolescents with perinatally acquired human immunodeficiency virus (PHIV) exhibit cerebral injury and cognitive impairment. Plasma neurofilament light (pNfL) is a biomarker identified as a promising marker associated with neuroaxonal injury and cognitive impairment. To investigate whether cerebral injury [...] Read more.
Despite combination antiretroviral therapy (cART), adolescents with perinatally acquired human immunodeficiency virus (PHIV) exhibit cerebral injury and cognitive impairment. Plasma neurofilament light (pNfL) is a biomarker identified as a promising marker associated with neuroaxonal injury and cognitive impairment. To investigate whether cerebral injury in cART-treated PHIV adolescents is persistent, we longitudinally measured pNfL. We included 21 PHIV adolescents and 23 controls, matched for age, sex, ethnic origin and socio-economic status. We measured pNfL in both groups and CSF NfL in PHIV adolescents using a highly sensitive Single Molecule Array (Simoa) immunoassay. We compared pNfL between groups over time with a mean follow-up time of 4.6 years and assessed its association with MRI outcomes, cognitive function and HIV-related characteristics using linear mixed models. The median age was 17.5 years (15.5–20.7) and 16.4 years (15.8–19.6) at the second assessment for PHIV adolescents and controls, respectively. We found comparable pNfL (PHIV vs. controls) at the first (2.9 pg/mL (IQR 2.0–3.8) and 3.0 pg/mL (IQR 2.3–3.5), p = 0.499) and second assessment (3.3 pg/mL (IQR 2.5–4.1) and 3.0 pg/mL (IQR 2.5–3.7), p = 0.658) and observed no longitudinal change (coefficient; −0.19, 95% −0.5 to 0.1, p = 0.244). No significant associations were found between pNfL and HIV- or cART-related variables, MRI outcomes or cognitive function. We observed low CSF NfL concentrations at the baseline in PHIV adolescents (100.8 pg/mL, SD = 47.5). Our results suggest that there is no ongoing neuroaxonal injury in cART-treated PHIV adolescents and that the neuroaxonal injury is acquired in the past, emphasizing the importance of early cART to mitigate HIV-related neuroaxonal damage. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue HIV-1 Infection and Immunometabolism: Relevance to HIV Pathogenesis and Persistence)
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9 pages, 729 KiB  
Brief Report
Distinct Plasma Concentrations of Acyl-CoA-Binding Protein (ACBP) in HIV Progressors and Elite Controllers
by Stéphane Isnard, Léna Royston, John Lin, Brandon Fombuena, Simeng Bu, Sanket Kant, Tsoarello Mabanga, Carolina Berini, Mohamed El-Far, Madeleine Durand, Cécile L. Tremblay, Nicole F. Bernard, Guido Kroemer and Jean-Pierre Routy
Viruses 2022, 14(3), 453; https://doi.org/10.3390/v14030453 - 23 Feb 2022
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2250
Abstract
HIV elite controllers (ECs) are characterized by the spontaneous control of viral replication, and by metabolic and autophagic profiles which favor anti-HIV CD4 and CD8 T-cell responses. Extracellular acyl coenzyme A binding protein (ACBP) acts as a feedback inhibitor of autophagy. Herein, we [...] Read more.
HIV elite controllers (ECs) are characterized by the spontaneous control of viral replication, and by metabolic and autophagic profiles which favor anti-HIV CD4 and CD8 T-cell responses. Extracellular acyl coenzyme A binding protein (ACBP) acts as a feedback inhibitor of autophagy. Herein, we assessed the circulating ACBP levels in ECs, compared to people living with HIV (PLWH) receiving antiretroviral therapy (ART) or not. We found lower ACBP levels in ECs compared to ART-naïve or ART-treated PLWH (p < 0.01 for both comparisons), independently of age and sex. ACBP levels were similar in ECs and HIV-uninfected controls. The expression of the protective HLA alleles HLA-B*27, *57, or *58 did not influence ACBP levels in ECs. ACBP levels were not associated with CD4 or CD8 T-cell counts, CD4 loss over time, inflammatory cytokines, or anti-CMV IgG titers in ECs. In ART-treated PLWH, ACBP levels were correlated with interleukin (IL)-1β levels, but not with other inflammatory cytokines such as IL-6, IL-8, IL-32, or TNF-α. In conclusion, ECs are characterized by low ACBP plasma levels compared to ART-naïve or ART-treated PLWH. As autophagy is key to anti-HIV CD4 and CD8 T-cell responses, the ACBP pathway constitutes an interesting target in HIV cure strategies. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue HIV-1 Infection and Immunometabolism: Relevance to HIV Pathogenesis and Persistence)
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