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A special issue of Water (ISSN 2073-4441). This special issue belongs to the section "Hydrology".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (31 July 2023) | Viewed by 53536

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Dr. Vasileios Tzanakakis

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Guest Editor

Department of Agriculture, School of Agricultural Sciences, Hellenic Mediterranean University, 71410 Heraklion, Greece
Interests: soil (bio)chemistry; soil fertility; nitrogen and carbon cycling; natural resources management; reuse in agriculture
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Dr. Stavros Alexandris

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Division of Water Resources, Department of Natural Resources & Agricultural Engineering, Agricultural University of Athens, Athens, Greece
Interests: atmospheric enviroment; climate agricultural micrometeorology; crop water requirements

Dr. Maria Psychogiou

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Guest Editor

Division of Water Resources, Department of Natural Resources & Agricultural Engineering, Agricultural University of Athens, Athens, Greece
Interests: water quality; irrigation; environmental soil physics

Dr. Andreas Angelakis

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Guest Editor

1. School of History and Culture, Hubei University, Wuhan 430061, China
2. National Foundation for Agricultural Research, Institute of Irak lion, 71307 Iraklion, Greece
Interests: wastewater treatment and water reuse; small and decentralized wastewater management systems; water technologies in ancient civilizations
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

The term “Climate” is more of a complex concept than a normative one. It could mean a recorded mean statistical noise of principal planetary heat exchanges, ranging from three decades or more to thousands of years and starting to obtain a distinguishable trend in a wide range of spatial and temporal scales in response to changes in temperature, precipitation, and solar radiation. Today, trying to disclose the mechanisms that drive the Earth’s climate and its variation, we are faced with an exceedingly complex system that includes five fundamental physical components and their interactions (i.e., atmosphere, hydrosphere, cryosphere, lithosphere, and biosphere). It is a mistake to believe that we have reached the point where we can fully understand the complex relationships between all the processes of the Earth’s climate.

Global shifts in rainfall and temperature patterns due to climate fluctuation can alter the status and function of terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems in many areas of the world by causing changes in the natural hydrological cycle and the critical biochemical cycles of carbon and nutrients, related to the sustainability of ecosystems’ services. Areas with larger climate variability and water scarcity phenomena, such as the Mediterranean basin, are more vulnerable to these alterations and may display high risk for soil and water resources. Climate parameters (precipitation and temperature) strongly affect water availability and crop water requirements. Under water scarcity conditions, irrigation practices are carried out with water of marginal quality, causing soil salinization and reduced crop yields. Moreover, there are areas that face challenges from a growing population and economy that further stress natural resources. Despite the available knowledge gained so far, there are still considerable uncertainties around the future climate drivers and their potential effect on hydrological systems and ecosystems’ sustainability. Thus, further work is needed in the domains of technology and research focusing on climate and resource interactions, implications on the function and productivity of ecosystems, resource management, as well as on legislation and policy issues.

This Special Issue “Climate Water and Soil” in the Water journal aims to identify, discuss, and address the above challenges by seeking research and review manuscripts dealing with climate monitoring and future climatic changes and interactions of climate with resources (water and soil), hydrological cycles, and the critical biochemical cycles of carbon and nitrogen. Additionally, links between climate and natural and agricultural (crops) ecosystem productivity, resource quality, soil and water resource management, adaptation measures in the agricultural sector, water management to mitigate water scarcity and the degradation of water and soil resources, and water use efficiency issues are included.

In this Special Issue, the goal is for authors to respond to developing solid research on climate, water, and soil in a context that is sometimes missing in mainstream literature on climate. Therefore, our intention in this context is to encourage scientists who promote realistic and innovative approaches to participate in the various issues of the potential thematology, taking the existing knowledge a step further.

Potential thematology

Anthropogenic and non-anthropogenic impacts on climate (the role of natural and anthropogenic influence on climate)
History of hydrological cycle (changes over time of Hydrological cycle)
History of CO₂ emission (historical atmospheric CO₂ over the last two centuries)
Climatic changes vs. climatic variability and/or fluctuations
Climate variations in the last millennium
Predictability of meteorological variables in the short-term vs. unpredictability in the long run
Climate impacts on hydrological cycles and the status of water resources (quality and availability)
Effects of climate change on water use efficiency across different users (agricultural, urban, and industrial sectors)
Scenarios (and/or models) of projected hydroclimatological regime vs. measurements
Water management and adaptations under climate challenges
Irrigation under scarcity water conditions
Irrigation with poor water quality from conventional and non-conventional sources (effects on soil quality and crop productivity)
Climatic parameters and irrigation
Water supply of the future megacities
Links between climate and the status of soil resources
Interactions between climate and C and N cycling in terrestrial (natural and agricultural) ecosystems
Interactions between the climate and the critical soil physical and (bio) chemical processes (e.g., mineralization, nitrification and denitrification).
Implications by climate change in soil moisture, soil biodiversity and microbial activities, soil organic matter, greenhouse gases (GHGs) emissions (e.g., CO₂ and N₂O), soil productivity and health, and overall ecosystem services
Scenarios (and/or models) of projected soil biodiversity, soil quality, and health and GHGs emission regimes vs. measurements
Land use and soil management and adaptations to tackle the climate change challenges, e.g., strategies and practices enhancing CO₂ capturing by plants and C sequestration into soil and reducing nutrients’ losses as GHGs emissions and nitrates and phosphorus leaching
Identification of indicators for land use, soil health, water, and ecosystems that have strong links to climate change
Climate, water, and soil impacts on human life quality and life-expectancy
The present and the future of climate, water, and soil

Dr. Vasileios Tzanakakis
Dr. Stavros Alexandris
Dr. Maria Psychogiou
Dr. Andreas N. Angelakis
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Water is an international peer-reviewed open access semimonthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2600 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

climate change
climate variability
hydrological cycle
carbon and nitrogen cycles
GHG emissions
climate water and soil interactions
climate vs. ecosystem functioning and services
irrigation water quality
crop water requirements

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Published Papers (10 papers)

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Editorial

Jump to: Research

9 pages, 762 KiB

Open AccessEditorial

Climate, Water, Soil

by Vasileios A. Tzanakakis and Andreas N. Angelakis

Water 2023, 15(23), 4196; https://doi.org/10.3390/w15234196 - 4 Dec 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1800

Abstract

“Climate” is a complex concept [...] Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Climate, Water, and Soil)

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Research

Jump to: Editorial

24 pages, 2561 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effects of Silicon Application and Groundwater Level in a Subirrigation System on Yield of a Three-Cut Meadow

by Joanna Kocięcka, Daniel Liberacki, Jerzy Mirosław Kupiec, Marcin Stróżecki and Paweł Dłużewski

Water 2023, 15(11), 2103; https://doi.org/10.3390/w15112103 - 1 Jun 2023

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 1536

Abstract

The increasing demand for food and animal products makes it important to ensure that animals have sufficient fodder obtained from grassland. Unfortunately, there has been a recent decline in grassland areas, which makes it essential to find solutions to increase the grassland’s productivity and the quality of the fodder it yields. One of these solutions may be the use of appropriate irrigation and fertilization. The present study investigated the effect of the foliar application of silicon fertilizer and the groundwater level in a subirrigation system on the yield of a three-cut meadow. Four different experimental plots were used: high groundwater level (HWL), high groundwater level with silicon application (HWL_Si), lower groundwater level (LWL), and lower groundwater level with silicon application (LWL_Si). The analyses showed that silicon significantly reduced the amount of dry matter obtained in each of the three meadow cuts during the year. Furthermore, the plot with a higher groundwater level had an annual yield of 12.69 Mg·ha⁻¹, whereas when silicon was applied to this area, it was 10.43 Mg·ha⁻¹ (17.8% reduction in dry matter). A similar trend was noted at lower water levels, in which silicon also caused a dry matter reduction. However, the experiment did not indicate a statistically significant effect of silicon application on plant height and NDVI values. These results show that further research is still needed to better understand silicon’s effect on meadow sward. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Climate, Water, and Soil)

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24 pages, 3408 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Climate Water Balance in the Warm Half-Year and Its Circulation Conditions in the Sudetes Mountains and Their Foreland (Poland and Czechia)

by Bartłomiej Miszuk

Water 2023, 15(4), 795; https://doi.org/10.3390/w15040795 - 17 Feb 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2330

Abstract

Mountains are one of the most sensitive regions in terms of climate changes. This also concerns water balance, which plays an important role, especially in the context of the ecological state. Furthermore, numerous studies indicate the atmospheric circulation as one of the crucial factors affecting climate conditions. Therefore, the goal of the paper is to examine the impact of the atmospheric circulation on the changes in climate water balance (CWB) in the Sudetes Mountains and their foreland. The analysis was carried out based on the 1981–2020 data derived from the Polish and Czech meteorological stations. The impact of the circulation factor was examined using the Lityński classification, while the calculation of evapotranspiration based on the Penman–Monteith equation. The results showed that despite positive trends for evapotranspiration, the changes in CWB in 1981–2020 were generally statistically insignificant. The only exception was the increase in CWB under the eastern circulation and its negative tendency for the western and southern sectors for some of the stations. This corresponds to the changes in the frequency of the circulation types. The results of the study can be used in further research on water balance in the region. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Climate, Water, and Soil)

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17 pages, 3292 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Influence of Climate and Land Cover/Use Change on Water Balance: An Approach to Individual and Combined Effects

by Rebeca Martínez-Retureta, Mauricio Aguayo, Norberto J. Abreu, Roberto Urrutia, Cristian Echeverría, Octavio Lagos, Lien Rodríguez-López, Iongel Duran-Llacer and Ricardo O. Barra

Water 2022, 14(15), 2304; https://doi.org/10.3390/w14152304 - 25 Jul 2022

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 3149

Abstract

Land use/cover change (LUCC) and climate change (CC) affect water resource availability as they alter important hydrological processes. Mentioned factors modify the magnitude of surface runoff, groundwater recharge, and river flow among other parameters. In the present work, changes that occurred in the recent decades at the Quino and Muco river watersheds in the south-central zone of Chile were evaluated to predict future cover/use changes considering a forest expansion scenario according to Chilean regulations. In this way an expansion by 42.3 km² and 52.7 km² at Quino and Muco watersheds, respectively, was predicted, reaching a watersheds’ occupation of 35.4% and 22.3% in 2051. Additionally, the local climatic model RegCM4-MPI-ESM-MR was used considering periods from 2020–2049 and 2050–2079, under the RCP 8.5 scenario. Finally, the SWAT model was applied to assess the hydrological response of both watersheds facing the considered forcing factors. Five scenarios were determined to evaluate the LUCC and CC individual and combined effects. The results depict a higher sensitivity of the watersheds to CC impacts, where an increase of evapotranspiration, with a lessening of percolation, surface flow, lateral flow, and groundwater flow, triggered a water yield (WYLD) decrease in all predicted scenarios. However, when both global changes act synergistically, the WYLD decreases considerably with reductions of 109.8 mm and 123.3 mm at the Quino and Muco watersheds, respectively, in the most extreme simulated scenario. This water scarcity context highlights the necessity to promote land use management strategies to counteract the imminent effects of CC in the watersheds. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Climate, Water, and Soil)

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13 pages, 5568 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Zinnia (Zinnia elegans L.) and Periwinkle (Catharanthus roseus (L.) G. Don) Responses to Salinity Stress

by Monika Marković, Jasna Šoštarić, Antonija Kojić, Brigita Popović, Ante Bubalo, Dejan Bošnjak and Aleksandar Stanisavljević

Water 2022, 14(7), 1066; https://doi.org/10.3390/w14071066 - 28 Mar 2022

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 3744

Abstract

The study of salinity stress in irrigated floriculture can make a significant contribution to the preservation of freshwater sources. To analyze the morphological and aesthetic responses of zinnia (Zinnia elegans L.) and periwinkle (Catharanthus roseus (L.) G. Don) to different salinity stress levels, the following treatments were performed: s0 = municipal water (control), s1 = 3 dS m⁻¹, s2 = 4.5 dS m⁻¹, and s3 = 6 dS m⁻¹. The growth of zinnia (flower number, plant height, branch and leaf number, total fresh and dry biomass, and root length) was linearly reduced by increasing salinity levels, while all observed periwinkle traits for the s2 salinity treatment were either equal to or greater than the control treatment (n.s.) and a further increase in salinity stress showed a significant (p < 0.01) decrease. The first flower buds on zinnia appeared with the control treatment (s0), while for periwinkle the first flower bud appeared with the s1 treatment. With regard to both zinnia and periwinkle leaf necrosis, drying and firing occurred during the third week in the s2 and s3 treatments. Zinnia proved to be sensitive to salinity, while periwinkle showed mild tolerance to salinity stress, up to 3 dS m⁻¹. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Climate, Water, and Soil)

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14 pages, 2461 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Farmers’ Participatory Alternate Wetting and Drying Irrigation Method Reduces Greenhouse Gas Emission and Improves Water Productivity and Paddy Yield in Bangladesh

by Mohammad Mobarak Hossain and Mohammad Rafiqul Islam

Water 2022, 14(7), 1056; https://doi.org/10.3390/w14071056 - 28 Mar 2022

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 4574

Abstract

In dry season paddy farming, the alternate wetting and drying (AWD) irrigation has the potential to improve water productivity and paddy production and decrease greenhouse gas (GHG), such as methane (CH₄) and nitrous oxide (N₂O), emissions when compared to continuous flooding (CF). Participatory on-farm trials were conducted from November 2017 to April 2018 in the Feni and Chattogram districts of Bangladesh. Total 62 farmers at Feni and 43 at Chattogram district, each location has 10 hectares of land involved in this study. We compared irrigation water and cost reductions, paddy yield, and CH₄ and N₂O emissions from paddy fields irrigated under AWD and CF irrigation methods. The mean results of randomly selected 30 farmers from each location showed that relative to the CF irrigation method, the AWD method reduced seasonal CH₄ emissions by 47% per hectare and CH₄ emission factor by 88% per hectare per day. Moreover, the AWD decreased the overall global warming potential and the intensity of GHG by 41%. At the same time, no noticeable difference in N₂O emission between the two methods was observed. On the other hand, AWD method increased paddy productivity by 3% while reducing irrigation water consumption by 27% and associated costs by 24%. Ultimately it improved water productivity by 32% over the CF method. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Climate, Water, and Soil)

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18 pages, 3385 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Analysis of Water Balance Changes and Parameterization Reflecting Soil Characteristics in a Hydrological Simulation Program—FORTRAN Model

by Soohong Kim, Jonggun Kim, Hyeongsik Kang, Won Seok Jang and Kyoung Jae Lim

Water 2022, 14(6), 990; https://doi.org/10.3390/w14060990 - 21 Mar 2022

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 3845

Abstract

Efficient water resource management requires accurate analyses of hydrological components and water balance. The Hydrological Simulation Program—FORTRAN (HSPF) model serves this purpose at the watershed scale. It has limited accuracy in calculating runoff and infiltration because the model simulates hydrological processes using one representative parameter for each land use in the watershed. Accuracy requires field-scale analysis of hydrological components. We calculated the lower zone storage nominal parameter, which markedly affects runoff in HSPF, from effective moisture content and depth of each soil layer. Analysis of hydrological components suggested re-calculating the parameters reflecting soil characteristics. We investigated two scenarios through simulations: Scenario 1 used the existing method. Scenario 2 used parameters that reflected soil properties. Total flows for each sub-catchment were identical, but proportions of direct and intermediate runoff were larger in Scenario 1. Ratios of baseflow, evapotranspiration, and infiltration were larger in Scenario 2, reflecting soil characteristics. Comparing the baseflow ratio to total flow, Scenario 2 values were similar to observed values. Comparisons of R² and Nash–Sutcliffe Efficiency (NSE) at the end of the watershed were well matched (R² and NSE are higher than 0.9) in both scenarios, but proportions of each hydrological component differed. It is important to consider soil characteristics when applying water quantity and quality analyses in an HSPF simulation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Climate, Water, and Soil)

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24 pages, 9851 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Uncoupled Precipitation and Water Availability: The Case Study of Municipality of Sfakia, Crete, Greece

by Vasileios A. Tzanakakis, Aikaterini Pavlaki, Emmanouil Lekkas, Emmanouil A. Varouchakis, Nikolaos V. Paranychianakis, Giorgos Fasarakis and Andreas N. Angelakis

Water 2022, 14(3), 462; https://doi.org/10.3390/w14030462 - 4 Feb 2022

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 4091

Abstract

Sfakia is a mountainous municipality located in the southwestern area of the island of Crete, including the southern part of the Lefka Ori Mountain, with an elevation ranging from sea level to over 2400 m. The mountainous massif mainly consists of carbonate rocks and intense karstic phenomena can be observed. The part of the area exceeding over the elevation of 600 m is characterized by high amounts of precipitation (1500 mm). Despite this high precipitation, the water availability in the area is low. This work aims to identify the factors that affect the water-resources availability in this area. In addition, issues related to proper water management are presented and discussed that will allow areas with similar characteristics to adapt to climate change. Our study identified the complex geological setting of the area that redirects water away of the hydrological basin (karsts) and the geomorphology that favors precipitation loss through runoff as the most important factors for the low availability of water resources. This paper attempts to create a base of discussion for similar cases worldwide by providing a framework of approaching scientifically analogous problems. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Climate, Water, and Soil)

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16 pages, 5440 KiB

Open AccessArticle

by Andrei Dornik, Mihaela Constanța Ion, Marinela Adriana Chețan and Lucian Pârvulescu

Water 2021, 13(16), 2280; https://doi.org/10.3390/w13162280 - 20 Aug 2021

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2822

Abstract

One of the most critical challenges in species distribution modelling is testing and validating various digitally derived environmental predictors (e.g., remote-sensing variables, topographic variables) by field data. Therefore, here we aimed to explore the value of soil properties in the spatial distribution of four European indigenous crayfish species. A database with 473 presence and absence locations in Romania for Austropotamobius bihariensis, A. torrentium, Astacus astacus and Pontastacus leptodactylus was used in relation to eight digitalised soil properties. Using random forest modelling, we found a preference for dense soils with lower coarse fragments content together with deeper sediment cover and higher clay values for A. astacus and P. leptodactylus. These descriptors trigger the need for cohesive soil river banks as the microenvironment for building their burrows. Conversely, species that can use banks with higher coarse fragments content, the highland species A. bihariensis and A. torrentium, prefer soils with slightly thinner sediment cover and lower density while not influenced by clay/sand content. Of all species, A. astacus was found related with higher erosive soils. The value of these soil-related digital descriptors may reside in the improvement of approaches in crayfish species distribution modelling to gain adequate conservation measures. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Climate, Water, and Soil)

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38 pages, 5145 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Rethinking Climate, Climate Change, and Their Relationship with Water

by Demetris Koutsoyiannis

Water 2021, 13(6), 849; https://doi.org/10.3390/w13060849 - 19 Mar 2021

Cited by 21 | Viewed by 23132

Abstract

We revisit the notion of climate, along with its historical evolution, tracing the origin of the modern concerns about climate. The notion (and the scientific term) of climate was established during the Greek antiquity in a geographical context and it acquired its statistical content (average weather) in modern times after meteorological measurements had become common. Yet the modern definitions of climate are seriously affected by the wrong perception of the previous two centuries that climate should regularly be constant, unless an external agent acts upon it. Therefore, we attempt to give a more rigorous definition of climate, consistent with the modern body of stochastics. We illustrate the definition by real-world data, which also exemplify the large climatic variability. Given this variability, the term “climate change” turns out to be scientifically unjustified. Specifically, it is a pleonasm as climate, like weather, has been ever-changing. Indeed, a historical investigation reveals that the aim in using that term is not scientific but political. Within the political aims, water issues have been greatly promoted by projecting future catastrophes while reversing true roles and causality directions. For this reason, we provide arguments that water is the main element that drives climate, and not the opposite. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Climate, Water, and Soil)

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