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Forming and Heat Treatment of Modern Metallic Materials

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A special issue of Metals (ISSN 2075-4701).

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (30 June 2020) | Viewed by 42082

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Special Issue Editors

Assoc. Prof. Ján Moravec

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Guest Editor

Department of Tecnological Engineering, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Univesity of Zilina, Univerzitná 8215/1, 010 26 Žilina, Slovak Republic
Interests: Mechanical technologies, especially in the field of metal forming technologies and their alloys; Design of molding tools; Area of plasticity of metals; Analyzes of metal forming processes and material analysis; Simulation in shaping; Unconventional molding technologies, preferably magnetic field molding; Hydroforming

Assoc. Prof. Karel Gryc

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Guest Editor

Environmental Research Department, Faculty of Technology, The Institue of Technology and Business in České Budějovice, Okružní 517/10, 370 01 České Budějovice, Czech Republic
Interests: Metallurgical technologies, especially in the field of production line optimization of steels and non-ferrous metals by utilization of simulation tools; material analysis and laboratory experiments and operational verifications.
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Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Forming and heat treatment of metals are crucial technologies for final metallic material processing on the end of production line before incorporating them into the final products or crucial components of more and more demanding systems required for the sustainability and development and of our civilization.

Thus, the content of this Special Issue “Forming and Heat Treatment of Modern Metallic Materials” focuses not only on standard technologies, but also on new procedures and approaches verified in laboratory and operational conditions. Contributions to this issue will represent papers from the academic sphere as well as the production sphere. Topics covering the wide spectrum of various ways of production and solutions based on non-conventional approaches mostly derived from physical knowledge are welcome. Papers should provide a base for further use and extraction of introduced knowledge by scientific and technical society.

This Special Issue is open to anyone who is familiar with the current state of metal forming and/or heat treatment technologies. Papers about conventional and non-conventional technologies of metal forming, rolling processes, production of tubes, forming of aluminum alloys and heating, as important elements of every heat molding process and in the protection of active parts of forming tools, are welcome. Hardening, tempering, and annealing, as well as standard procedures of heat treatment, without which it is not possible to perform any metal forming or heat treatment, and their irreplaceable roles are also of interest. Papers exploring mathematical and physical simulation introduced processes are also welcome.

Assoc. Prof. Ján Moravec
Assoc. Prof. Karel Gryc
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Metals is an international peer-reviewed open access monthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2600 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

Forming
Rolling
Forging
Tube making
Heat treatment
Annealing
Quenching
Hardening
Deposition
Forming tools

Published Papers (14 papers)

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Editorial

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5 pages, 215 KiB

Open AccessEditorial

Forming and Heat Treatment of Modern Metallic Materials

by Ján Moravec and Karel Gryc

Metals 2021, 11(7), 1106; https://doi.org/10.3390/met11071106 - 12 Jul 2021

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1783

Abstract

Forming and heat treatment of metals are crucial technologies for final metallic material processing at the end of production line, before they are incorporated into the final products or crucial components of more and more demanding systems required for the sustainability and development [...] Read more.

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Forming and Heat Treatment of Modern Metallic Materials)

Research

Jump to: Editorial

10 pages, 3406 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Investigation of the Effects of an Intense Pulsed Ion Beam on the Surface Melting of IN718 Superalloy Prepared with Selective Laser Melting

by Min Min, Shuiting Ding, Xiao Yu, Shijian Zhang, Haowen Zhong, Gennady Efimovich Remnev, Xiaoyun Le and Yu Zhou

Metals 2020, 10(9), 1178; https://doi.org/10.3390/met10091178 - 2 Sep 2020

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1872

Abstract

Intense pulsed ion beam irradiation on IN718 superalloy prepared with selective laser melting as an after-treatment for surface melting is introduced. It is demonstrated that intense pulsed ion beam composed of protons and carbon ions, with a maximum current density of 200 A/cm² and a pulse length of 80 ns, can induce surface melting and the surface roughness changes significantly due to the generation of micro-defects and the flow of the molten surface. Irradiation experiments and thermal field simulation revealed that the energy density of the ion beam plays a predominant role in the irradiation effect—with low energy density, the flow of molten surface is too weak to smooth the fluctuations on the surface. With high energy density, the surface can be effectively melted and smoothened while micro-defects, such as craters, may be generated and can be flattened by an increased number of pulses. The research verified that for the surface melting with intense pulsed ion beam (IPIB), higher energy density should be used for stronger surface fluidity and a greater pulse number is also required for the curing of surface micro-defects. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Forming and Heat Treatment of Modern Metallic Materials)

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18 pages, 9569 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Experimental Investigations on the Effects of Rotational Speed on Temperature and Microstructure Variations in Incremental Forming of T6- Tempered and Annealed AA2219 Aerospace Alloy

by Asim Ahmad Riaz, Naveed Ullah, Ghulam Hussain, Mohammed Alkahtani, Muhammad Naeem Khan and Shaukat Khan

Metals 2020, 10(6), 809; https://doi.org/10.3390/met10060809 - 17 Jun 2020

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 2967

Abstract

This research work primarily focused on investigating the effects of changing rotational speed on the forming temperature and microstructure during incremental sheet metal forming (ISF) of AA-2219-O and AA-2219-T6 sheets. Tool rotational speed was varied in the defined range (50–3000 rpm). The tool feed rate of 3000 mm/min and step size of 0.3 mm with spiral tool path were kept fixed in the tests. The sheets were formed into pyramid shapes of 45° draw angle, with the hemispherical end forming tool of 12 mm diameter. While the sheets were forming, the temperature variation due to friction at the sheet–tool contact zone was recorded, using a non-contact laser projected infrared temperature sensor. It was observed that the temperature rising rate for the T6 sheet during ISF is higher as compared to the annealed sheet, thereby showing that the T6 tempered sheet offers higher friction than the annealed sheet. Due to this reason, the T6 tempered sheet fails to achieve the defined forming depth of 25 mm when the rotational speed exceeds 2000 rpm. The effects of rotational speed and associated rise in the temperature were examined on the microstructure, using the scanning electron microscopic (SEM). The results reveal that the density of second phase particles reduces with increasing speed reasoning to corresponding temperature rise. However, the particle size in both tempers of AA2219 received a slight change and showed a trivial response to an increase in the rotational speed. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Forming and Heat Treatment of Modern Metallic Materials)

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19 pages, 7881 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Analysis of the Drawing Process of Small-Sized Seam Tubes

by Alexander Schrek, Alena Brusilová, Pavol Švec, Zuzana Gábrišová and Ján Moravec

Metals 2020, 10(6), 709; https://doi.org/10.3390/met10060709 - 27 May 2020

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 2583

Abstract

This article is focused on an analysis of factors negatively affecting the tube production process of tubes made from austenitic stainless steel with a very small diameter of ϕ 0.34 mm. The analysis was concentrated on factors that affect the drawing process stability of the seam tubes where the desired final dimensions—a diameter of ϕ 0.34 mm and a wall thickness of 0.057 mm—are limiting factors. Seam tubes made from steel 1.4306 and 1.4301, from producers KT and EW with a longitudinal weld line made by tungsten inert gas (TIG) welding, were used as blanks for constituent drawing operations. It is desirable to provide sufficient inert gas flow and cooling during the formation of a weld joint in a protective atmosphere chamber. A significant temperature gradient prevents the formation of undesirable Cr₂₃C₆ carbides in the heat-affected zone (HAZ) which negatively affects the plasticity and formability of the steel and is the cause of technological fractures. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Forming and Heat Treatment of Modern Metallic Materials)

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12 pages, 10883 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Evolution of Phase Transition and Mechanical Properties of Ultra-High Strength Hot-Stamped Steel During Quenching Process

by Shuang Liu, Mujun Long, Songyuan Ai, Yan Zhao, Dengfu Chen, Yi Feng, Huamei Duan and Mingtu Ma

Metals 2020, 10(1), 138; https://doi.org/10.3390/met10010138 - 16 Jan 2020

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 2566

Abstract

Hot stamping process is widely used in the manufacture of the high strength automotive steel, mainly including the stamping and quenching process of the hot-formed steel. In the hot stamping process, the steel is heated above the critical austenitizing temperature, and then it is rapidly stamped in the mold and the quenching phase transition occurs at the same time. The quenching operation in the hot stamping process has a significant influence on the phase transition and mechanical properties of the hot-stamping steel. A proper quenching technique is quite important to control the microstructure and properties of an ultra-high strength hot-stamping steel. In this paper, considering the factors of the austenitizing temperature, the austenitizing time and the cooling rate, a coupled model on the thermal homogenization and phase transition from austenite to martensite in quenching process was established for production of ultra-high strength hot-stamping steel. The temperature variation, the austenite decomposition and martensite formation during quenching process was simulated. At the same time, the microstructure and the properties of the ultra-high strength hot-stamping steel after quenching at different austenitizing temperature were experimental studied. The results show that under the conditions of low cooling rate, the final quenching microstructure of the ultra-high strength hot-stamping steel includes martensite, residual austenite, bainite and ferrite. With the increase of the cooling rate, bainite and ferrite gradually disappear. While austenitizing at 930 °C, the tensile strength, yield strength, elongation and strength-ductility product of the hot-stamping steel are 1770.1 MPa, 1128.2 MPa, 6.72% and 11.9 GPa%, respectively. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Forming and Heat Treatment of Modern Metallic Materials)

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10 pages, 2270 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Magnetic Properties in Finemet-Type Soft Magnetic Toroidal Cores Annealed under Radial Stresses

by Zhiyong Xue, Xuesong Li, Sajad Sohrabi, Yu Ren and Weihua Wang

Metals 2020, 10(1), 122; https://doi.org/10.3390/met10010122 - 15 Jan 2020

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 3640

Abstract

Applying tensile stresses on straight soft magnetic ribbons before core fabrication is a routine method of inducing magnetic anisotropy, while methods of stress annealing of ribbons after core winding are seldom explored. In this study, we utilize a novel approach to induce magnetic anisotropy by applying radial stresses on tape-wound cores of Fe_73.5Si_13.5B₉Cu₃Nb₁ (at. %) ribbon during crystallization heat treatment. The results show that while stress annealing does not change the structural characteristics of annealed samples, the magnetic anisotropies induced can increase to values ~3–5 times larger than the sample annealed in the absence of external stress. This increase in magnetic anisotropy energy is associated with ~25–50% decrease of magnetic inductance in the treated cores. These results suggest that the magnetic properties of nanocrystalline soft magnetic alloys can be effectively tuned by applying radial stresses. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Forming and Heat Treatment of Modern Metallic Materials)

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10 pages, 2989 KiB

Open AccessArticle

An Ultra-Fast Annealing Treatment by Electropulsing during Pure Copper Wire Drawing

by Hernán A. González Rojas, Antonio J. Sánchez Egea, Saqib Hameed and Raul Bolmaro

Metals 2019, 9(12), 1253; https://doi.org/10.3390/met9121253 - 23 Nov 2019

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 3240

Abstract

The influence of electropulses in situ on the drawing process of copper wires was investigated, with the aim of avoiding time consuming annealing thermal treatments. It was found that with the application of electropulses, tensile and drawing forces were reduced and the plasticity of the wire was improved. Meanwhile, compared with conventional drawing, hardness decreased. With the electropulsing treatment, no differences were found in the material’s resistivity. The microstructure exhibited similar grain size despite the joule effect, although some changes were found in the low and high angle grain boundaries. Compressive residual stresses were found on the surface during the assisted process; consequently, these specimens were expected to have a better performance under fatigue fracture. Therefore, we have found the first evidence of the advantages of this hybrid technique for pure copper wire drawing and, ultimately, to replace the conventional drawing annealing process with a more time effective electropulse-assisted drawing process. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Forming and Heat Treatment of Modern Metallic Materials)

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15 pages, 8620 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Flow Stress and Hot Deformation Activation Energy of 6082 Aluminium Alloy Influenced by Initial Structural State

by Ivo Schindler, Petr Kawulok, Vladivoj Očenášek, Petr Opěla, Rostislav Kawulok and Stanislav Rusz

Metals 2019, 9(12), 1248; https://doi.org/10.3390/met9121248 - 22 Nov 2019

Cited by 15 | Viewed by 3552

Abstract

Stress-strain curves of the EN AW 6082 aluminium alloy with 1.2 Si-0.51 Mg-0.75 Mn (wt.%) were determined by the uniaxial compression tests at temperatures of 450–550 °C with a strain rate of 0.5–10 s⁻¹. The initial structure state corresponded to three processing types: as-cast structure non-homogenized or homogenized at 500 °C, and the structure after homogenization and hot extrusion. Significantly higher flow stress appeared as a result of low temperature forming of the non-homogenized material. Hot deformation activation energy Q-values varied between 99 and 122 kJ·mol⁻¹ for both homogenized materials and from 200 to 216 kJ·mol⁻¹ for the as-cast state, while the Q-values calculated from the measured steady-state stress were always higher than those calculated from the peak stress values. For the extruded state of the 6082 alloy, the physically-based model was developed to reliably predict the flow stress influenced by dynamic softening, temperature, strain rate, and true strain up to 0.6. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Forming and Heat Treatment of Modern Metallic Materials)

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14 pages, 3972 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Extension of Experimentally Assembled Processing Maps of 10CrMo9-10 Steel via a Predicted Dataset and the Influence on Overall Informative Possibilities

by Petr Opěla, Petr Kawulok, Rostislav Kawulok, Ondřej Kotásek, Pavol Buček and Karol Ondrejkovič

Metals 2019, 9(11), 1218; https://doi.org/10.3390/met9111218 - 13 Nov 2019

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2309

Abstract

Processing maps embody a supportive tool for the optimization of hot forming processes. In the present work, based on the dynamic material model, the processing maps of 10CrMo9-10 low-alloy steel were assembled with the use of two flow curve datasets. The first one was obtained on the basis of uniaxial hot compression tests in a temperature range of 1073–1523 K and a strain rate range of 0.1–100 s⁻¹. This experimental dataset was subsequently approximated by means of an artificial neural network approach. Based on this approximation, the second dataset was calculated. An important finding was that the additional dataset contributed significantly to improving the informative ability of the assembled processing maps in terms of revealing potentially inappropriate forming conditions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Forming and Heat Treatment of Modern Metallic Materials)

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13 pages, 15683 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Study on the Nucleation and Growth of Pearlite Colony and Impact Toughness of Eutectoid Steel

by Fei Zhang, Yonggang Zhao, Yuanbiao Tan, Xuanming Ji and Song Xiang

Metals 2019, 9(11), 1133; https://doi.org/10.3390/met9111133 - 23 Oct 2019

Cited by 15 | Viewed by 4857

Abstract

The relationship between microstructure parameters and mechanical properties was studied in this paper. The steel was heat-treated at different austenitizing temperatures to acquire varying microstructure. The results showed that austenite grain size increases with austenitizing temperature, while the pearlite colony size was relatively constant. The strength followed a Hall–Petch relationship with the austenite grain size, but the austenite grain size has nothing to do with the impact toughness. The control unit for determining the impact toughness of pearlitic steel is the pearlite colony size using a comparison method. Further studies have found that, in the hypoeutectoid steel and hypereutectoid steel, the pearlite colony size changes with the austenitizing temperature. However, when the eutectoid steel with a carbon content of 0.81% undergoes the isothermal transformation, the number of grain boundary precipitates is very few. There are many nucleation sites at the grain boundary. The pearlite colonies randomly nucleate at the grain boundaries and grow into the interior of the grains. Simultaneously, new pearlite colonies nucleate by the side of the existing pearlite colony. The intragranular pearlite colonies are also randomly nucleated. These nucleation sites increase the chance of the growing pearlite colonies colliding with each other, eventually resulting in a constant pearlite colony size. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Forming and Heat Treatment of Modern Metallic Materials)

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14 pages, 7600 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Impact of the Gas Inlet Position, Flow Rate, and Strip Velocity on the Temperature Distribution of a Stainless-Steel Strips during the Hardening Process

by Pouyan Pirouznia, Nils Å. I. Andersson, Anders Tilliander and Pär G. Jönsson

Metals 2019, 9(9), 928; https://doi.org/10.3390/met9090928 - 24 Aug 2019

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2037

Abstract

A non-uniform temperature across the width of martensitic stainless-steel strips is considered to be one of the main reasons why the strip exhibits un-flatness defects during the hardening process. Therefore, the effect of the gas inlet position in this process, on the temperature distribution of the steel strip was investigated numerically. Furthermore, an infrared thermal imaging camera was used to compare the model predictions and the actual process data. The results showed that the temperature difference across the width of the strip decreased by 9% and 14% relative to the calculated temperature and measured values, respectively, when the gas inlet position was changed. This temperature investigation was performed at a position about 63 mm from the bath interface. Moreover, a more symmetrical temperature distribution was observed across the width of the strip. In addition, this study showed that by increasing the amount of the hydrogen flow rate by 2 Nm³/h, a 20% reduction of temperature difference across the width of strip was predicted. Meanwhile, the results show that the effect of the strip velocity on the strip temperature is very small. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Forming and Heat Treatment of Modern Metallic Materials)

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19 pages, 7979 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Developing Improved Mechanical Property and Corrosion Resistance of Mg-9Li Alloy via Solid-Solution Treatment

by Guowei Wang, Dan Song, Cheng Li, Edwin Eyram Klu, Yanxin Qiao, Jiapeng Sun, Jinghua Jiang and Aibin Ma

Metals 2019, 9(9), 920; https://doi.org/10.3390/met9090920 - 22 Aug 2019

Cited by 17 | Viewed by 3389

Abstract

Cast Mg-9Li alloy was successfully solid-solution (SS) treated via heating at 575 °C for 4.5 h and rapidly quenched with ice-water mixture. The mechanical property and corrosion resistance of the SS alloy were simultaneously improved. Rapid bcc/hcp phase transition of the alloy occurred during the quenching process, creating the newly precipitated needle-like fine α-Mg phase, uniformly distributed in the β-Li phase matrix. Dramatic grain refinement and uniform distribution of the α-Mg phase, as well as the massively increased α/β phase interfaces, are factors leading to the improved mechanical property of the SS alloy. Meanwhile, due to the modified duplex-phase structure, the SS alloy has a uniform corrosion-resistant surface film on the β-Li phase, which completely covers the entire alloy surface and efficiently protects the substrate. In addition, the SS alloy has fewer difference in the elements concentration and corrosion activity of the duplex phases, which reduces the pitting sensitivity and improves the corrosion resistance of the alloy matrix. The findings in this binary Mg-Li alloy can also serve as a benchmark for other more practical and complicated Mg-Li alloys. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Forming and Heat Treatment of Modern Metallic Materials)

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14 pages, 4292 KiB

Open AccessArticle

An investigation of the Temperature Distribution of a Thin Steel Strip during the Quenching Step of a Hardening Process

by Pouyan Pirouznia, Nils Å. I. Andersson, Anders Tilliander and Pär G. Jönsson

Metals 2019, 9(6), 675; https://doi.org/10.3390/met9060675 - 11 Jun 2019

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2890

Abstract

The dimension quality of the strip within the hardening process is an essential parameter, which great attention needs to be paid. The flatness of the final product is influenced by the temperature distribution of the strip, specifically across the width direction. Therefore, based on physical theories, a numerical model was established. The temperature of the strip for the section before the martensitic transformation was objected in the predicted model by using a steady state approach. In addition an infrared thermal imaging camera was applied in the real process in order to validate the results and to improve the boundary conditions of the numerical model. The results revealed that the temperature of strip decreased up to 250 °C within the area between the furnace and the quenching bath. This, in turn, resulted in significant temperature difference across the width of the strip. This difference can be up to 69 °C and 41 °C according to the numerical results and thermal imaging data, respectively. Overall, this study gave a better insight into the cooling step in the hardening process. In addition, this investigation can be used to improve the hardening process as well as an input for future thermal stress investigations. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Forming and Heat Treatment of Modern Metallic Materials)

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11 pages, 4837 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Investigation of Bipolar Plate Forming with Various Die Configurations by Magnetic Pulse Method

by Huimin Wang and Yuliang Wang

Metals 2019, 9(4), 453; https://doi.org/10.3390/met9040453 - 17 Apr 2019

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 3490

Abstract

Bipolar plates are a major part of fuel cells, which are a clean and recyclable energy source. This study was carried out with two dies for a bipolar plate forming investigation with the magnetic pulse method: a bipolar plate die and a 10-channel die. With the bipolar plate die, the forming of bipolar plates with a Cu110 sheet and a Grade 2 Ti sheet indicated that the bipolar plate die needed optimization for a full replication. The obtained maximum average depth percentage was 86% for a Cu110 sheet, while it was 54% for a Grade 2 Ti sheet in this study. A further increase of the depth percentage is possible but requires a much higher capacitor bank energy. The increase of the capacitor bank energy would result in severe tearing, while the depth percentage increase was little. The primary current and flyer velocity were measured at various capacitor bank energies. With the 10-channel die, the die parameters’ effect on metal sheet forming was investigated with a Cu110 sheet and an SS201 sheet. The draft angle had a significant effect on the replication of the die surface. The full replication was achieved for channels with proper parameters with both a Cu110 sheet and an SS201 sheet. Therefore, the bipolar plate die could be optimized based on the 10-channel die results. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Forming and Heat Treatment of Modern Metallic Materials)

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