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Polymers
Special Issues
Development in Thermosetting Polymers
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Development in Thermosetting Polymers

A special issue of Polymers (ISSN 2073-4360). This special issue belongs to the section "Polymer Networks".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (25 November 2023) | Viewed by 9506

Special Issue Editors

Dr. Jinrui Huang

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Institute of Chemical Industry of Forest Products, Chinese Academy of Forestry, Nanjing, China
Interests: toughening of epoxy resin; bio-based thermosetting polymers; functional thermosetting polymers and their composites; self-healing thermosetting polymers and their composites; recyclable and degradable thermosetting polymers and their composites; carbonaceous materials and their application
Prof. Dr. Zhubao Shao

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Institute of Functional Textiles and Advanced Materials, National Engineering Research Center for Advanced Fire-Safety Materials D & A (Shandong), College of Textiles and Clothing, State Key Laboratory of Bio-Fibers and Eco-Textiles, Qingdao University, Ningxia Road, 308, Qingdao 266071, China
Interests: eco-friendly; multifunctional; flame retardant; polymers
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Plastics are widely used in our daily lives, and while thermosetting polymers represent just under 20% of plastic production, serious drawbacks in terms of brittleness and poor fatigue resistance owing to their three dimensional cross-linking structure significantly restrict their extensive utilization. Therefore, modification of thermosets is essential for their applications.

In order to address the growing concern regarding environmental issues, there is an increasing interest in the exploitation of bio-based, self-healing, recyclable and degradable materials. Consequently, bio-based, self-healing, and recyclable and degradable thermosetting polymers have recently become hot research topics.

Furthermore, with the development of science and technology, the functional requirements of polymers are increasing day by day, requiring them to possess special capabilities, such as electrical conductivity, thermal conductivity, electromagnetic shielding, flame retardancy, and anti-corrosion. Therefore, functional combination is an important field in the development of thermosetting polymers.

The aim of this Special Issue is to highlight the recent developments in thermosetting polymers. In particular, the modification of thermosetting polymers, as well as bio-based, self-healing, recyclable and degradable thermosetting polymer materials and functional thermosetting polymers are of interest.

Dr. Jinrui Huang
Prof. Dr. Zhubao Shao
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Polymers is an international peer-reviewed open access semimonthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2700 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • modification of thermosetting polymers
  • bio-based thermosetting polymers
  • self-healing thermosetting polymers
  • recyclable and degradable thermosetting polymers
  • functional thermosetting polymers
  • composites

Published Papers (7 papers)

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Research

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20 pages, 3166 KiB  
Article
Evaluating Fire Performance of Glass–Polyurethane Composite for Sustainable Cladding via Numerical and Empirical Simulation
by T. Thevega, J. A. S. C. Jayasinghe, E. Kandare, D. Robert, C. S. Bandara, L. Shi and S. Setunge
Polymers 2023, 15(17), 3635; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym15173635 - 2 Sep 2023
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 856
Abstract
The increased demand for cladding in high-rise buildings has prompted engineers to explore alternative products utilizing recycled materials. However, ensuring fire compliance in these alternative claddings, which are predominantly composed of low-volume polymer-based composites, poses a critical challenge. Traditional experimental methods for fire [...] Read more.
The increased demand for cladding in high-rise buildings has prompted engineers to explore alternative products utilizing recycled materials. However, ensuring fire compliance in these alternative claddings, which are predominantly composed of low-volume polymer-based composites, poses a critical challenge. Traditional experimental methods for fire evaluation are costly, time consuming, and environmentally impactful. Considering this, a numerical approach was proposed for evaluating the fire performance of glass-polymer composite materials, which contain a high proportion of recycled glass and a lower percentage of rigid polyurethane. A cone calorimeter test was simulated using Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) software to investigate the flammability of the novel glass–polymer composite material. This validated numerical model was employed to assess the combustibility of the glass–polyurethane composite materials and identify influential parameters using the Design of Experiments (DoE) method. Statistical analysis revealed that three material properties, namely, the heat of combustion, the absorption coefficient, and the heat of reaction, significantly influenced the peak heat release rate (pHRR) of the glass–polyurethane composite materials compared to other properties. Based on these findings, an empirical equation was proposed that demonstrates a reasonable correlation with the pHRR of low-polymer recycled glass composite materials. The outcomes of this study hold considerable importance for understanding and predicting the combustibility behaviour of low-polymer–glass composites. By providing a validated numerical model and identifying critical material properties, this research contributes to the development of sustainable fire safety solutions for buildings, enabling the use of recycled materials and reducing reliance on conventional claddings. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Development in Thermosetting Polymers)
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16 pages, 4337 KiB  
Article
Study of the Self-Polymerization of Epoxy/Phthalonitrile Copolymers and Their High-Performance Fiber-Reinforced Laminates
by Mingzhen Xu, Bo Li, Xiongyao Li, Zexu Fan and Dengxun Ren
Polymers 2023, 15(17), 3516; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym15173516 - 23 Aug 2023
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1041
Abstract
Self-polymerization epoxy/phthalonitrile (APPEN) pre-polymers were studied systematically, and then, gelation time and differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) were employed to investigate their curing behaviors. Taking advantage of orthogonal test analysis, the key factors that affected the co-polymerization of APPEN were defined and the appropriate [...] Read more.
Self-polymerization epoxy/phthalonitrile (APPEN) pre-polymers were studied systematically, and then, gelation time and differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) were employed to investigate their curing behaviors. Taking advantage of orthogonal test analysis, the key factors that affected the co-polymerization of APPEN were defined and the appropriate pre-polymerization conditions were analyzed. A possible curing mechanism of APPEN was proposed. Then, the thermomechanical and mechanical properties of glass-fiber-reinforced APPEN laminates (APPEN/GF) prepared at 180 °C were analyzed to understand the cross-linked and aggregation structures. Fracture surface of the composite laminates was also investigated to reveal the copolymerization degree and the interfacial binding. The results indicated that APPEN/GF composites exhibit outstanding mechanical and thermomechanical properties (flexural strength, 712 MPa, flexural modulus, 38 GPa, and Tg > 185 °C). The thermal stability (T5% > 334 °C and IPDT reached 1482 °C) of APPEN/GF composites was also investigated to further reveal the copolymerization between epoxy resin and aminophthalonitrile, which may be beneficial to the application of epoxy-matrix-based composites in the field of high-performance polymer composites. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Development in Thermosetting Polymers)
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16 pages, 5621 KiB  
Article
An Integrated Multi-Functional Thermal Conductive and Flame Retardant Epoxy Composite with Functionalized Carbon Nitride Nanosheets
by Yuxin Yang, Ruiping Wang, Yang Leng, Jingchun Wang and Miaojun Xu
Polymers 2023, 15(14), 3143; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym15143143 - 24 Jul 2023
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1115
Abstract
In miniaturized and integrated electronic devices, thermal potential and fire hazards caused by heat diffusion require an efficient thermal management system with versatile electronic packaging equipment. The flame retardancy was endowed on the surface of carbon nitride after thermal etching (CNNS) containing piperazine [...] Read more.
In miniaturized and integrated electronic devices, thermal potential and fire hazards caused by heat diffusion require an efficient thermal management system with versatile electronic packaging equipment. The flame retardancy was endowed on the surface of carbon nitride after thermal etching (CNNS) containing piperazine pyrophosphate (PPAP) by hydrogen bonding, and the obtained nanosheet was defined as PPAP-CNNS. During solution blending and program-controlled curing, PPAP-CNNS was used as a multifunctional filler to fabricate highly thermoconductive and fire retardant epoxy resin (EP) composites. In line with expectations, the resultant EP composites containing 7 wt% PPAP-CNNS had an exceptional thermal conductivity (TC) of 1.1 W·m−1K−1, which was 4.8 times higher than pure EP. Simultaneously, there was a sharp drop in the heat release rate (HRR), total heat release (THR), smoke production rate (SPR), and total smoke production (TSP) compared to pure EP. These reductions were, respectively, 63.7%, 54.2%, 17.9%, and 57.2%. The addition of PPAP-CNNS increased the specific surface area, which increased the heat conduction routes, and also the shape of the compact and solid char layer during burning, protecting the underlying polymer. These improvements to dispersion and surface functionalization were made possible by the compound. These results indicate that the preparation of integrated multi-functional resin described in this study has a wide application. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Development in Thermosetting Polymers)
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13 pages, 4312 KiB  
Article
Comparison of the Properties of Epoxy Resins Containing Various Trifluoromethyl Groups with Low Dielectric Constant
by Yurong Zhang, Haidan Lin, Kai Dong, Shasha Tang and Chengji Zhao
Polymers 2023, 15(13), 2853; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym15132853 - 28 Jun 2023
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1529
Abstract
A series of epoxy resins containing various trifluoromethyl groups were synthesized and thermally cured with diaminodiphenylmethane (DDM) and aminophenyl sulfone (DDS). All epoxy resins exhibited excellent thermal stability with the glass transition temperatures of above 128 °C and 5% weight loss temperatures of [...] Read more.
A series of epoxy resins containing various trifluoromethyl groups were synthesized and thermally cured with diaminodiphenylmethane (DDM) and aminophenyl sulfone (DDS). All epoxy resins exhibited excellent thermal stability with the glass transition temperatures of above 128 °C and 5% weight loss temperatures of above 300 °C. DDS-cured epoxy resins possessed higher thermal stability than that of DDM-cured epoxy resins, while DDM-cured epoxy resins showed better mechanical, dielectric, and hydrophobic properties. Additionally, DDM-cured epoxy resins with different locations and numbers of trifluoromethyl groups showed flexural strength in the range of 95.55~152.36 MPa, flexural modulus in the range of 1.71~2.65 GPa, dielectric constant in the range of 2.55~3.05, and water absorption in the range of 0.49~0.95%. These results indicate that the incorporation of trifluoromethyl pendant groups into epoxy resins can be a valid strategy to improve the dielectric and hydrophobic performance. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Development in Thermosetting Polymers)
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20 pages, 6057 KiB  
Article
Effect of Process Parameters on Thermal and Mechanical Properties of Filament Wound Polymer-Based Composite Pipes
by Sara Srebrenkoska, Filip Kochoski, Vineta Srebrenkoska, Svetlana Risteska and Renata Kotynia
Polymers 2023, 15(13), 2829; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym15132829 - 27 Jun 2023
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1128
Abstract
The aim of this study was to investigate the mechanical and thermal properties of composite pipes based on epoxy resin and glass fibers produced by filament winding (FW) technology. Epoxy resins are widely used polymers in FW composite structures. The thermal characterization of [...] Read more.
The aim of this study was to investigate the mechanical and thermal properties of composite pipes based on epoxy resin and glass fibers produced by filament winding (FW) technology. Epoxy resins are widely used polymers in FW composite structures. The thermal characterization of the neat epoxy resin, curing, and post-curing characteristics for the determination of polymerization and glass transition temperature was performed, which is important for the mechanical properties of polymer composite pipes. In the present work, the applicability of the full factorial experimental design in predicting the hoop tensile and compressive strengths of glass fiber/epoxy resin composite pipes was investigated. The composite pipes in accordance with the 23 full factorial experimental design by using of three parameters and two levels of variation were prepared. The winding speed of the composites was taken to be the first factor, the second was the fiber tension, and the third was winding angle. To approximate the response, i.e., the mechanical properties of the composite pipes within the study domain, the first-order linear model with the interaction was used. The influence of each individual factor to the response function was established, as well as the influence of the interaction of the two and three factors. Additionally, those results were completed with the thermal characterization of the polymer composite pipes. From received results from mechanical and thermal characterization, it was concluded that the properties of composite specimens were highly affected by the analyzed parameters in filament winding technology. It was found that the estimated first-degree regression equation with the interaction gave a very good approximation of the experimental results of the hoop tensile and the compressive strengths of composite pipes within the study domain. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Development in Thermosetting Polymers)
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13 pages, 5198 KiB  
Article
Eco-Friendly Epoxy-Terminated Polyurethane-Modified Epoxy Resin with Efficient Enhancement in Toughness
by Kun Zhang, Jinrui Huang, Yigang Wang, Wenbin Li and Xiaoan Nie
Polymers 2023, 15(13), 2803; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym15132803 - 24 Jun 2023
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1636
Abstract
Polyurethane is widely used to toughen epoxy resins due to its excellent comprehensive properties and compatibility. However, some demerits of polyurethanes limit their applications, such as the harsh storage condition of isocyanate-terminated polyurethane (ITPU), the limited amount of ITPU in epoxy resin, and [...] Read more.
Polyurethane is widely used to toughen epoxy resins due to its excellent comprehensive properties and compatibility. However, some demerits of polyurethanes limit their applications, such as the harsh storage condition of isocyanate-terminated polyurethane (ITPU), the limited amount of ITPU in epoxy resin, and using solvents during the preparation of polyurethane-modified epoxy resins. To address these issues, in this study, we reported a facile and green approach for preparing epoxy-terminated polyurethane (EPU)-modified epoxy resins with different EPU contents. It was found that the toughness of the epoxy resin was significantly improved after the addition of EPU. When the EPU content was 30 wt%, the elongation at break and toughness were improved by 358.36% and 73.56%, respectively. In comparison, the toughening effect of EPU outperformed that of ITPU. Moreover, the high content of EPU did not significantly decrease the glass transition temperature and had little effect on the thermal stability of the epoxy resin. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Development in Thermosetting Polymers)
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Review

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18 pages, 2136 KiB  
Review
Latest Advancements in the Development of High-Performance Lignin- and Tannin-Based Non-Isocyanate Polyurethane Adhesive for Wood Composites
by Apri Heri Iswanto, Muhammad Adly Rahandi Lubis, Jajang Sutiawan, Syeed Saifulazry Osman Al-Edrus, Seng Hua Lee, Petar Antov, Lubos Kristak, Roman Reh, Efri Mardawati, Adi Santoso and Sukma Surya Kusumah
Polymers 2023, 15(19), 3864; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym15193864 - 23 Sep 2023
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1504
Abstract
The depletion of natural resources and increasing environmental apprehension regarding the reduction of harmful isocyanates employed in manufacturing polyurethanes (PUs) have generated significant attention from both industrial and academic sectors. This attention is focused on advancing bio-based non-isocyanate polyurethane (NIPU) resins as viable [...] Read more.
The depletion of natural resources and increasing environmental apprehension regarding the reduction of harmful isocyanates employed in manufacturing polyurethanes (PUs) have generated significant attention from both industrial and academic sectors. This attention is focused on advancing bio-based non-isocyanate polyurethane (NIPU) resins as viable and sustainable substitutes, possessing satisfactory properties. This review presents a comprehensive analysis of the progress made in developing bio-based NIPU polymers for wood adhesive applications. The main aim of this paper is to conduct a comprehensive analysis of the latest advancements in the production of high-performance bio-based NIPU resins derived from lignin and tannin for wood composites. A comprehensive evaluation was conducted on scholarly publications retrieved from the Scopus database, encompassing the period from January 2010 to April 2023. In NIPU adhesive manufacturing, the exploration of substitute materials for isocyanates is imperative, due to their inherent toxicity, high cost, and limited availability. The process of demethylation and carbonation of lignin and tannin has the potential to produce polyphenolic compounds that possess hydroxyl and carbonyl functional groups. Bio-based NIPUs can be synthesized through the reaction involving diamine molecules. Previous studies have provided evidence indicating that NIPUs derived from lignin and tannin exhibit enhanced mechanical properties, decreased curing temperatures and shortened pressing durations, and are devoid of isocyanates. The characterization of NIPU adhesives based on lignin and tannin was conducted using various analytical techniques, including Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization with time-of-flight (MALDI-TOF) mass spectrometry, and gel permeation chromatography (GPC). The adhesive performance of tannin-based NIPU resins was shown to be superior to that of lignin-based NIPUs. This paper elucidates the potential of lignin and tannin as alternate sources for polyols in the manufacturing of NIPUs, specifically for their application as wood adhesives. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Development in Thermosetting Polymers)
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