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Polymers
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Polymeric Foams
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Polymeric Foams

A special issue of Polymers (ISSN 2073-4360).

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (20 December 2018) | Viewed by 93520

Printed Edition Available!
A printed edition of this Special Issue is available here.

Special Issue Editors

Prof. Dr. José Ignacio Velasco

E-Mail Website1 Website2
Guest Editor
Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Poly2 Group, Technical University of Catalonia (UPC BarcelonaTech), ESEIAAT, C/Colom 11, 08222 Terrassa, Spain
Interests: polymers; composites; foams; nanocomposites
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals
Dr. Marcelo Antunes

E-Mail Website1 Website2
Guest Editor
Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Poly2 Group, Technical University of Catalonia (UPC BarcelonaTech), ESEIAAT, C/Colom 11, 08222 Terrassa, Spain
Interests: additives; aerogels; composites; conductivity; extrusion; films; foaming; foams; foils; fracture; graphene; ignifugation; membranes; molding; nanocomposites; nanoparticles; oxides; permeability; polyfunctional materials; polymers; processing; properties; resistance; silicates; structure; supercritical fluid
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Advances in nanotechnology have boosted the development of more efficient materials, with emerging sectors (electronics, energy, aerospace, among others) demanding novel materials to fulfil the complex technical requirements of their products. This is the case for polymeric foams, which may display good structural properties alongside functional characteristics through complex compositions and structures, in which a gaseous phase is combined with rigid ones, mainly based on nanoparticles, dispersed throughout the matrix.

In the last few years, there has been an important impulse in the development of “nanocomposite foams”, extending the concept of nanocomposite to the field of cellular materials. This, alongside the developments in new advanced foaming technologies, which have allowed generating new foams with micro, sub-micro and even nanocellular structures, has extended the applications of more traditional foams in terms of weight reduction, damping, thermal and/or acoustic insulation, to novel possibilities, such as electromagnetic interference (EMI) shielding.

This Special Issue considers recent research on novel polymer-based foams in all their aspects: design, composition, fabrication, microstructure, characterization and analysis, application and service behavior, recycling, etc.

Manuscripts related to the following topics will be welcomed in this Special Issue:

-           Thermoplastic and thermosetting polymer foams.

-           Biopolymer foams.

-           Nanocomposite foams.

-           Microcellular, sub-microcellular and nanocellular foams.

-           Close-cell, open-cell and interconnected-cell foams.

-           Unimodal and multimodal foams.

-           Chemical and physical foaming methods.

-           Recycling of foams.

-           Biodegradable foams.

-           Flame retardant foams.

-           Thermally and electrically conductive polymer foams.

-           New applications of foams, including electronics, batteries, fuel cells, catalysis, separation and filtration, EMI shielding, electrostatic discharge (ESD), electrostatic painting, tissue engineering, etc.

Dr. Marcelo Antunes
Prof. José Ignacio Velasco
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Polymers is an international peer-reviewed open access semimonthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2700 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • Polymeric foams
  • cellular composites
  • nanocomposites foams
  • functional foams

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Editorial

Jump to: Research

5 pages, 210 KiB  
Editorial
Polymeric Foams
by Marcelo Antunes and José Ignacio Velasco
Polymers 2019, 11(7), 1179; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym11071179 - 12 Jul 2019
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 3046
Abstract
Advances in nanotechnology have boosted the development of more efficient materials, with emerging sectors (electronics, energy, aerospace, among others) demanding novel materials to fulfill the complex technical requirements of their products [...] Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymeric Foams)

Research

Jump to: Editorial

13 pages, 4812 KiB  
Article
A Sacrificial Route for Soft Porous Polymers Synthesized via Frontal Photo-Polymerization
by Alexandre Turani-i-Belloto, Thomas Brunet, Alexandre Khaldi and Jacques Leng
Polymers 2020, 12(5), 1008; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym12051008 - 27 Apr 2020
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2851
Abstract
Within the very large range of porous polymers and a related immense scope of applications, we investigate here a specific route to design soft porous polymers with controlled porosity: we use aqueous-based formulations of oligomers with mineral particles which are solidified into [...] Read more.
Within the very large range of porous polymers and a related immense scope of applications, we investigate here a specific route to design soft porous polymers with controlled porosity: we use aqueous-based formulations of oligomers with mineral particles which are solidified into a hydrogel upon photo-polymerization; the embedded particles are then chemically etched and the hydrogel is dried to end up with a soft porous polymeric scaffold with micron-scale porosity. Morphological and physical features of the porous polymers are measured and we demonstrate that the porosity of the final material is primarily determined by the amount of initially dispersed sacrificial particles. In addition, the liquid formulations we use to start with are convenient for a variety of material forming techniques such as microfluidics, embossing, etc., which lead to many different morphologies (monoliths, spherical particles, patterned substrates) based on the same initial material. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Cellular Polymeric Materials)
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12 pages, 1278 KiB  
Article
Rigid Polyurethane Foams with Various Isocyanate Indices Based on Polyols from Rapeseed Oil and Waste PET
by Aiga Ivdre, Arnis Abolins, Irina Sevastyanova, Mikelis Kirpluks, Ugis Cabulis and Remo Merijs-Meri
Polymers 2020, 12(4), 738; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym12040738 - 26 Mar 2020
Cited by 47 | Viewed by 7246
Abstract
Developing polyols derived from natural sources and recycling materials attracts great interest for use in replacing petroleum-based polyols in polyurethane production. In this study, rigid polyurethane (PUR) foams with various isocyanate indices were obtained from polyols based on rapeseed oil and polyethylene terephthalate [...] Read more.
Developing polyols derived from natural sources and recycling materials attracts great interest for use in replacing petroleum-based polyols in polyurethane production. In this study, rigid polyurethane (PUR) foams with various isocyanate indices were obtained from polyols based on rapeseed oil and polyethylene terephthalate (RO/PET). The various properties of the prepared PUR foams were investigated, and the effect of the isocyanate index was evaluated. The closed-cell content and water absorption were not impacted by the change of the isocyanate index. The most significant effect of increasing the isocyanate index was on the dimensional stability of the resulting foams. This is due to the increased crosslink density, as evidenced by the increased formation of isocyanurate and increase of the glass transition temperature. Additionally, the influence on compression strength, modulus, and long-term thermal conductivity were evaluated and compared with reference PUR foams from commercially available polyols. Rigid PUR foams from RO/PET polyol were found to be competitive with reference materials and could be used as thermal insulation material. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Cellular Polymeric Materials)
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13 pages, 3289 KiB  
Article
Anisotropy in Polyurethane Pre-Insulated Pipes
by Lucía Doyle, Ingo Weidlich and Marcus Illguth
Polymers 2019, 11(12), 2074; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym11122074 - 12 Dec 2019
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 4280
Abstract
The polyurethane foam in district heating pre-insulated pipes has a critical role to play both as thermal insulation and as load bearing element, as it serves as bond between the medium pipe and the casing. Hence, knowledge on how the foam behaves under [...] Read more.
The polyurethane foam in district heating pre-insulated pipes has a critical role to play both as thermal insulation and as load bearing element, as it serves as bond between the medium pipe and the casing. Hence, knowledge on how the foam behaves under multiaxial stresses is of great importance for the design as well as for aging predictions of the network. It is known that cell shape anisotropy in polymeric foams leads to anisotropy in its mechanical properties. In this study, we evaluate and quantify the microstructural anisotropy of PU foam from pre-insulated pipes as well as its mechanical behaviour under compression in the three orthogonal directions. We cover rigid and flexible PU foam, batch and continuous manufacturing, and different pipe diameters. The results were compared with those predicted by available rectangular and Kelvin cell shape models. We have found that PU from pre-insulated pipes is orthotropic and present stronger anisotropy than that typically found in PU slabs. The traditional bonded pipes under consideration behaved in a similar way. However, when comparing the two flexible pipes in this study, despite no significant differences in cell shape anisotropy were found, a significantly different behaviour for the E modulus ratio was observed. This shows that while the manufacturing process exerts the main influence on cell shape anisotropy, to explain the difference in stiffness behaviour other factors need to be taken into consideration, such as cell size and cell size variability. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Cellular Polymeric Materials)
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10 pages, 3489 KiB  
Article
Open-Cell Rigid Polyurethane Foams from Peanut Shell-Derived Polyols Prepared under Different Post-Processing Conditions
by Guangyu Zhang, Yumin Wu, Weisheng Chen, Dezhi Han, Xiaoqi Lin, Gongchen Xu and Qinqin Zhang
Polymers 2019, 11(9), 1392; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym11091392 - 23 Aug 2019
Cited by 19 | Viewed by 4677
Abstract
Bio-based polyurethane materials with abundant open-cells have wide applications because of their biodegradability for addressing the issue of environmental conservation. In this work, open-cell rigid polyurethane foams (RPUFs) were prepared with bio-based polyols (BBPs) derived from the liquefaction of peanut shells under different [...] Read more.
Bio-based polyurethane materials with abundant open-cells have wide applications because of their biodegradability for addressing the issue of environmental conservation. In this work, open-cell rigid polyurethane foams (RPUFs) were prepared with bio-based polyols (BBPs) derived from the liquefaction of peanut shells under different post-processing conditions. The influences of the neutralization procedure and filtering operation for BBPs on the foaming behaviors, density, dimensional stability, water absorption, swelling ratio, compressive strength, and microstructure of RPUFs were investigated intensively. The results revealed that a small amount of sulfuric acid in the polyols exhibited a great impact on physical and chemical properties of RPUFs while the filtering operation for those polyols had a slight effect on the above properties. The RPUFs prepared from neutralized BBPs possessed higher water absorption, preferable dimensional stability and compression strength than that fabricated from the non-neutralized BBPs. Moreover, the prepared RPUFs exhibited preferable water absorption of 636–777%, dimensional stability of <0.5%, compressive strength of >200 KPa, lower swelling rate of ca. 1%, as well as uniform cell structure with superior open-cell rate, implying potential applications in floral foam. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Cellular Polymeric Materials)
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12 pages, 4468 KiB  
Article
Transport Properties of One-Step Compression Molded Epoxy Nanocomposite Foams
by Mario Martin-Gallego, Emil Lopez-Hernandez, Javier Pinto, Miguel A. Rodriguez-Perez, Miguel A. Lopez-Manchado and Raquel Verdejo
Polymers 2019, 11(5), 756; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym11050756 - 30 Apr 2019
Cited by 7 | Viewed by 3977
Abstract
Owing to their high strength and stiffness, thermal and environmental stability, lower shrinkage, and water resistance, epoxy resins have been the preferred matrix for the development of syntactic foams using hollow glass microspheres. Although these foams are exploited in multiple applications, one of [...] Read more.
Owing to their high strength and stiffness, thermal and environmental stability, lower shrinkage, and water resistance, epoxy resins have been the preferred matrix for the development of syntactic foams using hollow glass microspheres. Although these foams are exploited in multiple applications, one of their issues is the possibility of breakage of the glass hollow microspheres during processing. Here, we present a straightforward and single-step foaming protocol using expandable polymeric microspheres based on the well-established compression molding process. We demonstrate the viability of the protocol producing two sets of nanocomposite foams filled with carbon-based nanoparticles with improved transport properties. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymeric Foams)
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23 pages, 3263 KiB  
Article
Shock-Driven Decomposition of Polymers and Polymeric Foams
by Dana M. Dattelbaum and Joshua D. Coe
Polymers 2019, 11(3), 493; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym11030493 - 13 Mar 2019
Cited by 30 | Viewed by 4414
Abstract
Polymers and foams are pervasive in everyday life, as well as in specialized contexts such as space exploration, industry, and defense. They are frequently subject to shock loading in the latter cases, and will chemically decompose to small molecule gases and carbon (soot) [...] Read more.
Polymers and foams are pervasive in everyday life, as well as in specialized contexts such as space exploration, industry, and defense. They are frequently subject to shock loading in the latter cases, and will chemically decompose to small molecule gases and carbon (soot) under loads of sufficient strength. We review a body of work—most of it performed at Los Alamos National Laboratory—on polymers and foams under extreme conditions. To provide some context, we begin with a brief review of basic concepts in shockwave physics, including features particular to transitions (chemical reaction or phase transition) entailing an abrupt reduction in volume. We then discuss chemical formulations and synthesis, as well as experimental platforms used to interrogate polymers under shock loading. A high-level summary of equations of state for polymers and their decomposition products is provided, and their application illustrated. We then present results including temperatures and product compositions, thresholds for reaction, wave profiles, and some peculiarities of traditional modeling approaches. We close with some thoughts regarding future work. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymeric Foams)
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12 pages, 5499 KiB  
Article
Enhancement by Metallic Tube Filling of the Mechanical Properties of Electromagnetic Wave Absorbent Polymethacrylimide Foam
by Leilei Yan, Wei Jiang, Chun Zhang, Yunwei Zhang, Zhiheng He, Keyu Zhu, Niu Chen, Wanbo Zhang, Bin Han and Xitao Zheng
Polymers 2019, 11(2), 372; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym11020372 - 20 Feb 2019
Cited by 21 | Viewed by 4055
Abstract
By the addition of a carbon-based electromagnetic absorbing agent during the foaming process, a novel electromagnetic absorbent polymethacrylimide (PMI) foam was obtained. The proposed foam exhibits excellent electromagnetic wave-absorbing properties, with absorptivity exceeding 85% at a large frequency range of 4.9–18 GHz. However, [...] Read more.
By the addition of a carbon-based electromagnetic absorbing agent during the foaming process, a novel electromagnetic absorbent polymethacrylimide (PMI) foam was obtained. The proposed foam exhibits excellent electromagnetic wave-absorbing properties, with absorptivity exceeding 85% at a large frequency range of 4.9–18 GHz. However, its poor mechanical properties would limit its application in load-carrying structures. In the present study, a novel enhancement approach is proposed by inserting metallic tubes into pre-perforated holes of PMI foam blocks. The mechanical properties of the tube-enhanced PMI foams were studied experimentally under compressive loading conditions. The elastic modulus, compressive strength, energy absorption per unit volume, and energy absorption per unit mass were increased by 127.9%, 133.8%, 54.2%, and 46.4%, respectively, by the metallic tube filling, and the density increased only by 5.3%. The failure mechanism of the foams was also explored. We found that the weaker interfaces between the foam and the electromagnetic absorbing agent induced crack initiation and subsequent collapses, which destroyed the structural integrity. The excellent mechanical and electromagnetic absorbing properties make the novel structure much more competitive in electromagnetic wave stealth applications, while acting simultaneously as load-carrying structures. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymeric Foams)
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18 pages, 6374 KiB  
Article
Polyetherimide Foams Filled with Low Content of Graphene Nanoplatelets Prepared by scCO2 Dissolution
by Hooman Abbasi, Marcelo Antunes and José Ignacio Velasco
Polymers 2019, 11(2), 328; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym11020328 - 13 Feb 2019
Cited by 10 | Viewed by 4107
Abstract
Polyetherimide (PEI) foams with graphene nanoplatelets (GnP) were prepared by supercritical carbon dioxide (scCO2) dissolution. Foam precursors were prepared by melt-mixing PEI with variable amounts of ultrasonicated GnP (0.1–2.0 wt %) and foamed by one-step scCO2 foaming. While the addition [...] Read more.
Polyetherimide (PEI) foams with graphene nanoplatelets (GnP) were prepared by supercritical carbon dioxide (scCO2) dissolution. Foam precursors were prepared by melt-mixing PEI with variable amounts of ultrasonicated GnP (0.1–2.0 wt %) and foamed by one-step scCO2 foaming. While the addition of GnP did not significantly modify the cellular structure of the foams, melt-mixing and foaming induced a better dispersion of GnP throughout the foams. There were minor changes in the degradation behaviour of the foams with adding GnP. Although the residue resulting from burning increased with augmenting the amount of GnP, foams showed a slight acceleration in their primary stages of degradation with increasing GnP content. A clear increasing trend was observed for the normalized storage modulus of the foams with incrementing density. The electrical conductivity of the foams significantly improved by approximately six orders of magnitude with only adding 1.5 wt % of GnP, related to an improved dispersion of GnP through a combination of ultrasonication, melt-mixing and one-step foaming, leading to the formation of a more effective GnP conductive network. As a result of their final combined properties, PEI-GnP foams could find use in applications such as electrostatic discharge (ESD) or electromagnetic interference (EMI) shielding. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymeric Foams)
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15 pages, 4381 KiB  
Article
Highly-Loaded Thermoplastic Polyurethane/Lead Zirconate Titanate Composite Foams with Low Permittivity Fabricated using Expandable Microspheres
by Gayaneh Petrossian, Cameron J. Hohimer and Amir Ameli
Polymers 2019, 11(2), 280; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym11020280 - 07 Feb 2019
Cited by 17 | Viewed by 4557
Abstract
The sensitivity enhancement of piezocomposites can realize new applications. Introducing a cellular structure into these materials decreases the permittivity and thus increases their sensitivity. However, foaming of piezocomposites is challenging because of the high piezoceramic loading required. In this work, heat-expandable microspheres were [...] Read more.
The sensitivity enhancement of piezocomposites can realize new applications. Introducing a cellular structure into these materials decreases the permittivity and thus increases their sensitivity. However, foaming of piezocomposites is challenging because of the high piezoceramic loading required. In this work, heat-expandable microspheres were used to fabricate thermoplastic polyurethane (TPU)/lead zirconate titanate (PZT) composite foams with a wide range of PZT content (0 vol % to 40 vol %) and expansion ratio (1–4). The microstructure, thermal behavior, and dielectric properties of the foams were investigated. Composite foams exhibited a fine dispersion of PZT particles in the solid phase and a uniform cellular structure with cell sizes of 50–100 μm; cell size decreased with an increase in the PZT content. The total crystallinity of the composites was also decreased as the foaming degree increased. The results showed that the relative permittivity (εr) can be effectively decreased by an increase in the expansion ratio. A maximum of 7.7 times decrease in εr was obtained. An extended Yamada model to a three-phase system was also established and compared against the experimental results with a relatively good agreement. This work demonstrates a method to foam highly loaded piezocomposites with a potential to enhance the voltage sensitivity. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymeric Foams)
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18 pages, 6870 KiB  
Article
Effect of Cellulose Nanofiber (CNF) Surface Treatment on Cellular Structures and Mechanical Properties of Polypropylene/CNF Nanocomposite Foams via Core-Back Foam Injection Molding
by Long Wang, Kiyomi Okada, Yuta Hikima, Masahiro Ohshima, Takafumi Sekiguchi and Hiroyuki Yano
Polymers 2019, 11(2), 249; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym11020249 - 02 Feb 2019
Cited by 55 | Viewed by 6868
Abstract
Herein, lightweight nanocomposite foams with expansion ratios ranging from 2–10-fold were fabricated using an isotactic polypropylene (iPP) matrix and cellulose nanofiber (CNF) as the reinforcing agent via core-back foam injection molding (FIM). Both the native and modified CNFs, including the different degrees of [...] Read more.
Herein, lightweight nanocomposite foams with expansion ratios ranging from 2–10-fold were fabricated using an isotactic polypropylene (iPP) matrix and cellulose nanofiber (CNF) as the reinforcing agent via core-back foam injection molding (FIM). Both the native and modified CNFs, including the different degrees of substitution (DS) of 0.2 and 0.4, were melt-prepared and used for producing the polypropylene (PP)/CNF composites. Foaming results revealed that the addition of CNF greatly improved the foamability of PP, reaching 2–3 orders of magnitude increases in cell density, in comparison to those of the neat iPP foams. Moreover, tensile test results showed that the incorporation of CNF increased the tensile modulus and yield stress of both solid and 2-fold foamed PP, and a greater reinforcing effect was achieved in composites containing modified CNF. In the compression test, PP/CNF composite foams prepared with a DS of 0.4 exhibited dramatic improvements in mechanical performance for 10-fold foams, in comparison to iPP, with increases in the elastic modulus and collapse stress of PP foams of 486% and 468%, respectively. These results demonstrate that CNF is extraordinarily helpful in enhancing the foamability of PP and reinforcing PP foams, which has importance for the development of lightweight polymer composite foams containing a natural nanofiber. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymeric Foams)
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11 pages, 7593 KiB  
Article
Improving the Supercritical CO2 Foaming of Polypropylene by the Addition of Fluoroelastomer as a Nucleation Agent
by Chenguang Yang, Quan Zhao, Zhe Xing, Wenli Zhang, Maojiang Zhang, Hairong Tan, Jixiang Wang and Guozhong Wu
Polymers 2019, 11(2), 226; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym11020226 - 01 Feb 2019
Cited by 12 | Viewed by 5116
Abstract
In this study, a small amount of fluoroelastomer (FKM) was used as a nucleating agent to prepare well-defined microporous PP foam by supercritical CO2. It was observed that solid FKM was present as the nanoscale independent phase in PP matrix and [...] Read more.
In this study, a small amount of fluoroelastomer (FKM) was used as a nucleating agent to prepare well-defined microporous PP foam by supercritical CO2. It was observed that solid FKM was present as the nanoscale independent phase in PP matrix and the FKM could induce a mass of CO2 aggregation, which significantly enhanced the diffusion rate of CO2 in PP. The resultant PP/FKM foams exhibited much smaller cell size (~24 μm), and more than 16 times cell density (3.2 × 108 cells/cm3) as well as a much more uniform cell size distribution. PP/FKM foams possessed major concurrent enhancement in their tensile stress and compressive stress compared to neat PP foam. We believe that the added FKM played a key role in enhancing the heterogeneous nucleation, combined with the change of local strain in the multiple-phase system, which was responsible for the considerably improved cell morphology of PP foaming. This work provides a deep understanding of the scCO2 foaming behavior of PP in the presence of FKM. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymeric Foams)
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11 pages, 3756 KiB  
Article
Resistance to Cleavage of Core–Shell Rubber/Epoxy Composite Foam Adhesive under Impact Wedge–Peel Condition for Automobile Structural Adhesive
by Jong-Ho Back, Dooyoung Baek, Jae-Ho Shin, Seong-Wook Jang, Hyun-Joong Kim, Jong-Hak Kim, Hong-Kyu Song, Jong-Won Hwang and Min-Jae Yoo
Polymers 2019, 11(1), 152; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym11010152 - 17 Jan 2019
Cited by 17 | Viewed by 4712
Abstract
Epoxy foam adhesives are widely used for weight reduction, watertight property, and mechanical reinforcement effects. However, epoxy foam adhesives have poor impact resistance at higher expansion ratios. Hence, we prepared an epoxy composite foam adhesive with core–shell rubber (CSR) particles to improve the [...] Read more.
Epoxy foam adhesives are widely used for weight reduction, watertight property, and mechanical reinforcement effects. However, epoxy foam adhesives have poor impact resistance at higher expansion ratios. Hence, we prepared an epoxy composite foam adhesive with core–shell rubber (CSR) particles to improve the impact resistance and applied it to automotive structural adhesives. The curing behavior and pore structure were characterized by differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) and X-ray computed tomography (CT), respectively, and impact wedge–peel tests were conducted to quantitatively evaluate the resistance to cleavage of the CSR/epoxy composite foam adhesives under impact. At 5 and 10 phr CSR contents, the pore size and expansion ratio increased sufficiently due to the decrease in curing rate. However, at 20 phr CSR content, the pore size decreased, which might be due to the steric hindrance effect of the CSR particles. Notably, at 0 and 0.1 phr foaming agent contents, the resistance to cleavage of the adhesives under the impact wedge–peel condition significantly improved with increasing CSR content. Thus, the CSR/epoxy composite foam adhesive containing 0.1 phr foaming agent and 20 phr CSR particles showed high impact resistance (EC = 34,000 mJ/cm2) and sufficient expansion ratio (~148%). Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymeric Foams)
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11 pages, 1801 KiB  
Article
Segregation versus Interdigitation in Highly Dynamic Polymer/Surfactant Layers
by Omar T. Mansour, Beatrice Cattoz, Manon Beaube, Richard K. Heenan, Ralf Schweins, Jamie Hurcom and Peter C. Griffiths
Polymers 2019, 11(1), 109; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym11010109 - 10 Jan 2019
Cited by 9 | Viewed by 3496
Abstract
Many polymer/surfactant formulations involve a trapped kinetic state that provides some beneficial character to the formulation. However, the vast majority of studies on formulations focus on equilibrium states. Here, nanoscale structures present at dynamic interfaces in the form of air-in-water foams are explored, [...] Read more.
Many polymer/surfactant formulations involve a trapped kinetic state that provides some beneficial character to the formulation. However, the vast majority of studies on formulations focus on equilibrium states. Here, nanoscale structures present at dynamic interfaces in the form of air-in-water foams are explored, stabilised by mixtures of commonly used non-ionic, surface active block copolymers (Pluronic®) and small molecule ionic surfactants (sodium dodecylsulfate, SDS, and dodecyltrimethylammonium bromide, C12TAB). Transient foams formed from binary mixtures of these surfactants shows considerable changes in stability which correlate with the strength of the solution interaction which delineate the interfacial structures. Weak solution interactions reflective of distinct coexisting micellar structures in solution lead to segregated layers at the foam interface, whereas strong solution interactions lead to mixed structures both in bulk solution, forming interdigitated layers at the interface. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymeric Foams)
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10 pages, 2551 KiB  
Article
Extrusion Foaming of Lightweight Polystyrene Composite Foams with Controllable Cellular Structure for Sound Absorption Application
by Yanpei Fei, Wei Fang, Mingqiang Zhong, Jiangming Jin, Ping Fan, Jintao Yang, Zhengdong Fei, Lixin Xu and Feng Chen
Polymers 2019, 11(1), 106; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym11010106 - 09 Jan 2019
Cited by 31 | Viewed by 4994
Abstract
Polymer foams are promising for sound absorption applications. In order to process an industrial product, a series of polystyrene (PS) composite foams were prepared by continuous extrusion foaming assisted by supercritical CO2. Because the cell size and cell density were the [...] Read more.
Polymer foams are promising for sound absorption applications. In order to process an industrial product, a series of polystyrene (PS) composite foams were prepared by continuous extrusion foaming assisted by supercritical CO2. Because the cell size and cell density were the key to determine the sound absorption coefficient at normal incidence, the bio-resource lignin was employed for the first time to control the cellular structure on basis of hetero-nucleation effect. The sound absorption range of the PS/lignin composite foams was corresponding to the cellular structure and lignin content. As a result, the maximum sound absorption coefficient at normal incidence was higher than 0.90. For a comparison, multiwall carbon nanotube (MWCNT) and micro graphite (mGr) particles were also used as the nucleation agent during the foaming process, respectively, which were more effective on the hetero-nucleation effect. The mechanical property and thermal stability of various foams were measured as well. Lignin showed a fire retardant effect in PS composite foam. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymeric Foams)
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11 pages, 13521 KiB  
Article
Thermal Degradation and Flame Retardant Mechanism of the Rigid Polyurethane Foam Including Functionalized Graphene Oxide
by Xuexi Chen, Junfei Li and Ming Gao
Polymers 2019, 11(1), 78; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym11010078 - 06 Jan 2019
Cited by 28 | Viewed by 5388
Abstract
A flame retardant rigid polyurethane foam (RPUF) system containing functionalized graphene oxide (fGO), expandable graphite (EG), and dimethyl methyl phosphonate (DMMP) was prepared and investigated. The results show that the limiting oxygen index (LOI) of the flame-retardant-polyurethane-fGO (FRPU/fGO) composites reached 28.1% and UL-94 [...] Read more.
A flame retardant rigid polyurethane foam (RPUF) system containing functionalized graphene oxide (fGO), expandable graphite (EG), and dimethyl methyl phosphonate (DMMP) was prepared and investigated. The results show that the limiting oxygen index (LOI) of the flame-retardant-polyurethane-fGO (FRPU/fGO) composites reached 28.1% and UL-94 V-0 rating by adding only 0.25 g fGO. The thermal degradation of FRPU samples was studied using thermogravimetric analysis (TG) and the Fourier transform infrared (FT-IR) analysis. The activation energies (Ea) for the main stage of thermal degradation were obtained using the Kissinger equation. It was found that the fGO can considerably increase the thermal stability and decrease the flammability of RPUF. Additionally, the Ea of FRPU/fGO reached 191 kJ·mol−1, which was 61 kJ·mol−1 higher than that of the pure RPUF (130 kJ·mol−1). Moreover, scanning electron microscopy (SEM) results showed that fGO strengthened the compactness and the strength of the “vermicular” intumescent char layer improved the insulation capability of the char layer to gas and heat. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymeric Foams)
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21 pages, 6572 KiB  
Article
Effects of a Phosphorus Flame Retardant System on the Mechanical and Fire Behavior of Microcellular ABS
by Vera Realinho, David Arencón, Marcelo Antunes and José Ignacio Velasco
Polymers 2019, 11(1), 30; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym11010030 - 26 Dec 2018
Cited by 13 | Viewed by 4759
Abstract
The present work deals with the study of phosphorus flame retardant microcellular acrylonitrile–butadiene–styrene (ABS) parts and the effects of weight reduction on the fire and mechanical performance. Phosphorus-based flame retardant additives (PFR), aluminum diethylphosphinate and ammonium polyphosphate, were used as a more environmentally [...] Read more.
The present work deals with the study of phosphorus flame retardant microcellular acrylonitrile–butadiene–styrene (ABS) parts and the effects of weight reduction on the fire and mechanical performance. Phosphorus-based flame retardant additives (PFR), aluminum diethylphosphinate and ammonium polyphosphate, were used as a more environmentally friendly alternative to halogenated flame retardants. A 25 wt % of such PFR system was added to the polymer using a co-rotating twin-screw extruder. Subsequently, microcellular parts with 10, 15, and 20% of nominal weight reduction were prepared using a MuCell® injection-molding process. The results indicate that the presence of PFR particles increased the storage modulus and decreased the impact energy determined by means of dynamic-mechanical-thermal analysis and falling weight impact tests respectively. Nevertheless, the reduction of impact energy was found to be lower in ABS/PFR samples than in neat ABS with increasing weight reduction. This effect was attributed to the lower cell sizes and higher cell densities of the microcellular core of ABS/PFR parts. All ABS/PFR foams showed a self-extinguishing behavior under UL-94 burning vertical tests, independently of the weight reduction. Gradual decreases of the second peak of heat release rate and time of combustion with similar intumescent effect were observed with increasing weight reduction under cone calorimeter tests. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymeric Foams)
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12 pages, 19175 KiB  
Article
Study on Foaming Quality and Impact Property of Foamed Polypropylene Composites
by Wei Gong, Hai Fu, Chun Zhang, Daming Ban, Xiaogang Yin, Yue He, Li He and Xianglin Pei
Polymers 2018, 10(12), 1375; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym10121375 - 11 Dec 2018
Cited by 27 | Viewed by 3945
Abstract
In the present work, foamed polypropylene (PP) composites were prepared by chemical foaming technology, and the foaming quality and impact property of the foamed PP composites were studied. The results showed that the foaming quality was significantly improved after the introduction of thermoplastic [...] Read more.
In the present work, foamed polypropylene (PP) composites were prepared by chemical foaming technology, and the foaming quality and impact property of the foamed PP composites were studied. The results showed that the foaming quality was significantly improved after the introduction of thermoplastic rubber (TPR) and polyolefin elastomer (POE). Meanwhile, it was found that the impact property depended on the intrinsic toughness and contribution of foams (cells) to the PP composites. Furthermore, the data regarding impact property in low temperature showed that when the temperature was between −80 and −20 °C, the impact properties of the foamed PP composites were higher than that of the unfoamed sample, which was due to the impact property being completely contributed by cells under this condition. Meanwhile, when the temperature ranged from −20 to 20 °C, the impact property of the unfoamed sample was higher, which was due to the PP matrix contributing more to the impact property under this temperature. This work significantly improved the foaming quality of foamed PP composites and provided reliable evidence for the improvement of impact property. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymeric Foams)
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10 pages, 4477 KiB  
Article
Lightweight Cellulose/Carbon Fiber Composite Foam for Electromagnetic Interference (EMI) Shielding
by Ran Li, Huiping Lin, Piao Lan, Jie Gao, Yan Huang, Yueqin Wen and Wenbin Yang
Polymers 2018, 10(12), 1319; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym10121319 - 28 Nov 2018
Cited by 28 | Viewed by 6284
Abstract
Lightweight electromagnetic interference shielding cellulose foam/carbon fiber composites were prepared by blending cellulose foam solution with carbon fibers and then freeze drying. Two kinds of carbon fiber (diameter of 7 μm) with different lengths were used, short carbon fibers (SCF, L/D [...] Read more.
Lightweight electromagnetic interference shielding cellulose foam/carbon fiber composites were prepared by blending cellulose foam solution with carbon fibers and then freeze drying. Two kinds of carbon fiber (diameter of 7 μm) with different lengths were used, short carbon fibers (SCF, L/D = 100) and long carbon fibers (LCF, L/D = 300). It was observed that SCFs and LCFs built efficient network structures during the foaming process. Furthermore, the foaming process significantly increased the specific electromagnetic interference shielding effectiveness from 10 to 60 dB. In addition, cellulose/carbon fiber composite foams possessed good mechanical properties and low thermal conductivity of 0.021–0.046 W/(m·K). Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymeric Foams)
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11 pages, 2872 KiB  
Article
Hierarchical Porous Polyamide 6 by Solution Foaming: Synthesis, Characterization and Properties
by Liang Wang, Yu-Ke Wu, Fang-Fang Ai, Jie Fan, Zhao-Peng Xia and Yong Liu
Polymers 2018, 10(12), 1310; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym10121310 - 27 Nov 2018
Cited by 20 | Viewed by 4791
Abstract
Porous polym er materials have received great interest in both academic and industrial fields due to their wide range of applications. In this work, a porous polyamide 6 (PA6) material was prepared by a facile solution foaming strategy. In this approach, a sodium [...] Read more.
Porous polym er materials have received great interest in both academic and industrial fields due to their wide range of applications. In this work, a porous polyamide 6 (PA6) material was prepared by a facile solution foaming strategy. In this approach, a sodium carbonate (SC) aqueous solution acted as the foaming agent that reacted with formic acid (FA), generating CO2 and causing phase separation of polyamide (PA). The influence of the PA/FA solution concentration and Na2CO3 concentration on the microstructures and physical properties of prepared PA foams were investigated, respectively. PA foams showed a hierarchical porous structure along the foaming direction. The mean pore dimension ranged from hundreds of nanometers to several microns. Low amounts of sodium salt generated from a neutralization reaction played an important role of heterogeneous nucleation, which increased the crystalline degree of PA foams. The porous PA materials exhibited low thermal conductivity, high crystallinity and good mechanical properties. The novel strategy in this work could produce PA foams on a large scale for potential engineering applications. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymeric Foams)
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10 pages, 2561 KiB  
Article
Compressive Behavior of Aluminum Microfibers Reinforced Semi-Rigid Polyurethane Foams
by Emanoil Linul, Cristina Vălean and Petrică-Andrei Linul
Polymers 2018, 10(12), 1298; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym10121298 - 23 Nov 2018
Cited by 40 | Viewed by 4033
Abstract
Unreinforced and reinforced semi-rigid polyurethane (PU) foams were prepared and their compressive behavior was investigated. Aluminum microfibers (AMs) were added to the formulations to investigate their effect on mechanical properties and crush performances of closed-cell semi-rigid PU foams. Physical and mechanical properties of [...] Read more.
Unreinforced and reinforced semi-rigid polyurethane (PU) foams were prepared and their compressive behavior was investigated. Aluminum microfibers (AMs) were added to the formulations to investigate their effect on mechanical properties and crush performances of closed-cell semi-rigid PU foams. Physical and mechanical properties of foams, including foam density, quasi-elastic gradient, compressive strength, densification strain, and energy absorption capability, were determined. The quasi-static compression tests were carried out at room temperature on cubic samples with a loading speed of 10 mm/min. Experimental results showed that the elastic properties and compressive strengths of reinforced semi-rigid PU foams were increased by addition of AMs into the foams. This increase in properties (61.81%-compressive strength and 71.29%-energy absorption) was obtained by adding up to 1.5% (of the foam liquid mass) aluminum microfibers. Above this upper limit of 1.5% AMs (e.g., 2% AMs), the compressive behavior changes and the energy absorption increases only by 12.68%; while the strength properties decreases by about 14.58% compared to unreinforced semi-rigid PU foam. The energy absorption performances of AMs reinforced semi-rigid PU foams were also found to be dependent on the percentage of microfiber in the same manner as the elastic and strength properties. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymeric Foams)
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13 pages, 4534 KiB  
Article
Experimental Study of Thermal Behavior of Insulation Material Rigid Polyurethane in Parallel, Symmetric, and Adjacent Building Façade Constructions
by Xin Ma, Ran Tu, Xudong Cheng, Shuguang Zhu, Jinwei Ma and Tingyong Fang
Polymers 2018, 10(10), 1104; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym10101104 - 06 Oct 2018
Cited by 23 | Viewed by 3585
Abstract
Both experimental and theoretical methods were proposed to assess the effects of adjacent, parallel, and symmetric exterior wall structures on the combustion and flame spreading characteristics of rigid polyurethane (PUR) foam insulation. During the combustion of PUR specimens, the flame leading edge was [...] Read more.
Both experimental and theoretical methods were proposed to assess the effects of adjacent, parallel, and symmetric exterior wall structures on the combustion and flame spreading characteristics of rigid polyurethane (PUR) foam insulation. During the combustion of PUR specimens, the flame leading edge was found to transfer from a unique inverted ‘W’ shape to an inverted ‘V’ during flame propagation. This phenomenon is attributed to edge effects related to boundary layer theory. The effects of the adjacent façade angle on flame spreading rate and flame height were shown to be nonlinear, as a result of the combined influences of heat transfer, radiation angle, and the chimney restriction effects. A critical angle around 90 degree with maximum thermal hazards outwards by parallel fire was observed and consistent with the mass loss rate and flame height tendencies. For narrow spacing configurations or angles (e.g., 60 and 90 degrees), phenomenological two-pass processing in conjunction showed that increased preheating lengths were associated with enhanced heat transfer. The results of this study have implications concerning the design of safe façade structures for high-rise buildings, and provide a better understanding of downward flame spreading over PUR. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymeric Foams)
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15 pages, 6230 KiB  
Article
Preparation and Characterization of DOPO-ITA Modified Ethyl Cellulose and Its Application in Phenolic Foams
by Yufeng Ma, Xuanang Gong, Chuhao Liao, Xiang Geng, Chunpeng Wang and Fuxiang Chu
Polymers 2018, 10(10), 1049; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym10101049 - 20 Sep 2018
Cited by 30 | Viewed by 4188
Abstract
In order to improve the performance of phenolic foam, an additive compound of 9,10-dihydro-9-oxa-10-phosphaphenanthrene-10-oxide (DOPO) and Itaconic acid (ITA) were attached on the backbone of ethyl cellulose (EC) and obtained DOPO-ITA modified EC (DIMEC), which was used to modify phenolic resin and composite [...] Read more.
In order to improve the performance of phenolic foam, an additive compound of 9,10-dihydro-9-oxa-10-phosphaphenanthrene-10-oxide (DOPO) and Itaconic acid (ITA) were attached on the backbone of ethyl cellulose (EC) and obtained DOPO-ITA modified EC (DIMEC), which was used to modify phenolic resin and composite phenolic foams (CPFs). The structures of DOPO-ITA were verified by Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR) and nuclear magnetic resonance (1H NMR). The molecular structure and microstructure were characterized by FT-IR spectra and SEM, respectively. Compared with EC, the crystallinity of DIMEC was dramatically decreased, and the diffraction peak positions were basically unchanged. Additionally, thermal stability was decreased and Ti decreased by 24 °C. The residual carbon (600 °C) was increased by 25.7%. With the dosage of DIMEC/P increased, the Ea values of DIMEC composite phenolic resins were increased gradually. The reaction orders were all non-integers. Compared with PF, the mechanical properties, flame retardancy, and the residual carbon (800 °C) of CPFs were increased. The cell size of CPFs was less and the cell distribution was relatively regular. By comprehensive analysis, the suitable dosage of DIMEC/P was no more than 15%. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymeric Foams)
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13 pages, 1095 KiB  
Article
Multi-Objective Optimization of Acoustic Performances of Polyurethane Foam Composites
by Shuming Chen, Wenbo Zhu and Yabing Cheng
Polymers 2018, 10(7), 788; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym10070788 - 18 Jul 2018
Cited by 27 | Viewed by 4300
Abstract
Polyurethane (PU) foams are widely used as acoustic package materials to eliminate vehicle interior noise. Therefore, it is important to improve the acoustic performances of PU foams. In this paper, the grey relational analysis (GRA) method and multi-objective particle swarm optimization (MOPSO) algorithm [...] Read more.
Polyurethane (PU) foams are widely used as acoustic package materials to eliminate vehicle interior noise. Therefore, it is important to improve the acoustic performances of PU foams. In this paper, the grey relational analysis (GRA) method and multi-objective particle swarm optimization (MOPSO) algorithm are applied to improve the acoustic performances of PU foam composites. The average sound absorption coefficient and average transmission loss are set as optimization objectives. The hardness and content of Ethylene Propylene Diene Monomer (EPDM) and the content of deionized water and modified isocyanate (MDI) are selected as design variables. The optimization process of GRA method is based on the orthogonal arrays L9(34), and the MOPSO algorithm is based on the Response Surface (RS) surrogate model. The results show that the acoustic performances of PU foam composites can be improved by optimizing the synthetic formula. Meanwhile, the results that were obtained by GRA method show the degree of influence of the four design variables on the optimization objectives, and the results obtained by MOPSO algorithm show the specific effects of the four design variables on the optimization objectives. Moreover, according to the confirmation experiment, the optimal synthetic formula is obtained by MOPSO algorithm when the weight coefficient of the two objectives set as 0.5. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymeric Foams)
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