Additive Manufacturing of Architected Metallic Materials

Journal Name	Impact Factor	CiteScore	Launched Year	First Decision (median)	APC
Coatings coatings	2.9	5.0	2011	14.5 Days	CHF 2600
Journal of Manufacturing and Materials Processing jmmp	3.3	5.1	2017	16.5 Days	CHF 1800
Materials materials	3.1	5.8	2008	13.9 Days	CHF 2600
Metals metals	2.6	4.9	2011	17.8 Days	CHF 2600
Micromachines micromachines	3.0	5.2	2010	16.2 Days	CHF 2100

20 pages, 9816 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Compressive Behavior of Novel Additively Manufactured Ti-6Al-4V Lattice Structures: Experimental and Numerical Studies

by Mohammed Hussein Kadhim Aljaberi, Mohammad M. Aghdam, Taha Goudarzi and Muhannad Al-Waily

Materials 2024, 17(15), 3691; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma17153691 - 26 Jul 2024

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1368

This paper presents novel configurations for additively manufactured lattice structures, including helical and elliptic designs, in addition to the pyramid base model. Functionally graded versions of the pyramid and elliptic lattice structures are developed by considering desirable relative densities in each layer. The [...] Read more.

This paper presents novel configurations for additively manufactured lattice structures, including helical and elliptic designs, in addition to the pyramid base model. Functionally graded versions of the pyramid and elliptic lattice structures are developed by considering desirable relative densities in each layer. The lattice structures were manufactured using Ti-6Al-4V powder in a three-dimensional selective laser melting printer. The averaged porosities are 0.86, 0.91, 0.916, 0.93 and 0.74 for pyramid, functionally graded pyramid, elliptic, functionally graded elliptic and helical, respectively. The mechanical behavior of the lattice structures was characterized through compression tests using a universal testing machine and computationally analyzed using finite element code. The results indicate that the elliptic and functionally graded elliptic lattices have elastic moduli of 0.76 and 0.67 GPa, while the yield strengths are 41.32 and 32.24 MPa, respectively, in comparison to cancellous bone. Moreover, pyramid, functionally graded pyramid, and helical lattices show relatively lower elastic moduli of 0.57, 0.65 and 0.41 GPa and higher yield strengths of 54.1, 52.15 and 61.02 MPa, respectively. This could be an indication that they are fit for cortical bones. All samples have low elastic moduli coupled with high yield strengths. This could reduce or eliminate stress shielding, making them suitable for some load-bearing bio-inspired applications. A comparative study utilizing experimental and numerical models was conducted to evaluate the performance of the proposed designs. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Additive Manufacturing of Architected Metallic Materials)

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18 pages, 7262 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Mechanical Properties and Cooperation Mechanism of Corroded Steel Plates Retrofitted by Laser Cladding Additive Manufacturing under Tension

by Lan Kang, Peng Song, Xinpei Liu and Haizhou Chen

Materials 2024, 17(15), 3690; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma17153690 - 25 Jul 2024

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1020

Abstract

As a metal additive manufacturing process, laser cladding (LC) is employed as a novel and beneficial repair technology for damaged steel structures. This study employed LC technology with 316 L stainless steel powder to repair locally corroded steel plates. The influences of interface [...] Read more.

As a metal additive manufacturing process, laser cladding (LC) is employed as a novel and beneficial repair technology for damaged steel structures. This study employed LC technology with 316 L stainless steel powder to repair locally corroded steel plates. The influences of interface slope and scanning pattern on the mechanical properties of repaired specimens were investigated through tensile tests and finite element analysis. By comparing the tensile properties of the repaired specimens with those of the intact and corroded specimens, the effectiveness of LC repair technology was assessed. An analysis of strain variations in the LC sheet and substrate during the load was carried out to obtain the cooperation mechanism between the LC sheet and substrate. The experimental results showed that the decrease in interface slope slightly improved the mechanical properties of repaired specimens. The repaired specimens have similar yield strength and ultimate strength to the intact specimens and better ductility as compared to the corroded specimen. The stress–strain curve of repaired specimens can be divided into four stages: elastic stage, substrate yield-LC sheet elastic stage, substrate hardening-LC sheet elastic stage, and plastic stage. These findings suggest that the LC technology with 316 L stainless steel powder is effective in repairing damaged steel plates in civil engineering structures and that an interface slope of 1:2.5 with the transverse scanning pattern is suitable for the repair process. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Additive Manufacturing of Architected Metallic Materials)

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15 pages, 6326 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Scratch Resistance of a Plasma-Assisted DUPLEX-Treated 17-4 Precipitation-Hardened Stainless Steel Additively Manufactured by Laser Powder Bed Fusion

by Arturo Gómez-Ortega, Julián Andrés Pinilla-Bedoya, Carolina Ortega-Portilla, Christian Félix-Martínez, Guillermo César Mondragón-Rodríguez, Diego Germán Espinosa-Arbeláez, James Pérez-Barrera, Juan Manuel González-Carmona and Edgar Adrián Franco Urquiza

Coatings 2024, 14(5), 605; https://doi.org/10.3390/coatings14050605 - 11 May 2024

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2116

Abstract

Additive manufacturing (AM) or 3D printing of metals is gaining popularity due to its flexibility when fabricating parts with highly complex designs, as well as when simplifying manufacturing steps and optimizing process times. In this investigation, 17-4 PH stainless steel was additively manufactured [...] Read more.

Additive manufacturing (AM) or 3D printing of metals is gaining popularity due to its flexibility when fabricating parts with highly complex designs, as well as when simplifying manufacturing steps and optimizing process times. In this investigation, 17-4 PH stainless steel was additively manufactured using Laser Powder Bed Fusion (L-PBF), followed by functionalization through a DUPLEX treatment. This treatment involved a plasma-assisted nitriding process, followed by the deposition of an arc-PVD c-Al_0.7Cr_0.3N hard coating. The microstructural modifications resulting from plasma nitriding (such as the formation of Fe_2,3N and Fe₄N and the αN or expanded martensite phases) and the surface improvements with the c-Al_0.7Cr_0.3N coating on the 3D-printed 17-4 PH steel are evaluated in comparison to conventionally manufactured 17-4 PH steel. These microstructural characteristics are correlated with the mechanical response of the treated surfaces. As a result of the plasma nitriding process, the hardness of the 3D-printed 17-4 PH SS increased by approximately 260%. The wear, measured through dynamic and static scratch testing, was reduced by approximately 31%. This improvement was attributed to the modification of adhesive failure mechanisms, leading to a reduction in wear volume, improved coating adhesion, and enhanced scratch resistance. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Additive Manufacturing of Architected Metallic Materials)

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19 pages, 14275 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Crashworthiness Study of Functional Gradient Lattice-Reinforced Thin-Walled Tubes under Impact Loading

by Zeliang Liu, Yuan Wang, Xi Liang and Wei Yu

Materials 2024, 17(10), 2264; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma17102264 - 11 May 2024

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1080

Abstract

Creating lightweight and impact-resistant box structures has been an enduring pursuit among researchers. A new energy-absorbing structure consisting of a bionic gradient lattice-enhanced thin-walled tube is presented in this article. The gradient lattice and thin-walled tube were prepared using selective laser melting (SLM) [...] Read more.

Creating lightweight and impact-resistant box structures has been an enduring pursuit among researchers. A new energy-absorbing structure consisting of a bionic gradient lattice-enhanced thin-walled tube is presented in this article. The gradient lattice and thin-walled tube were prepared using selective laser melting (SLM) and wire-cutting techniques, respectively. To analyze the effects of gradient pattern, mass ratio, diameter range and impact speed on structural crashworthiness, low-speed impact at 4 m/s and finite element simulation experiments were conducted. The study demonstrates that the design of inward radial gradient lattice-reinforced thin-walled tubes can effectively enhance structure’s energy-absorption efficiency and provide a more stable mode of deformation. It also shows a 17.44% specific energy-absorption advantage over the uniformly lattice-reinforced thin-walled tubes, with no significant overall gain in peak crushing force. A complex scale evaluation method was used to determine the optimum structure and the structure type with the best crashworthiness was found to be a gradient lattice-filled tube with a thickness of 0.9 mm and a slope index of 10. The gradient lattice-reinforced thin-walled tube suggested in this investigation offers guidance for designing a more efficient thin-walled energy-absorption structure. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Additive Manufacturing of Architected Metallic Materials)

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23 pages, 5007 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Minimizing Dimensional Defects in FFF Using a Novel Adaptive Slicing Method Based on Local Shape Complexity

by Ahmed Elayeb, Mehdi Tlija, Ameni Eltaief, Borhen Louhichi and Farhat Zemzemi

J. Manuf. Mater. Process. 2024, 8(2), 59; https://doi.org/10.3390/jmmp8020059 - 11 Mar 2024

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2438

Abstract

Additive Manufacturing (AM) has emerged as an innovative technology that gives designers several advantages, such as geometric freedom of design and less waste. However, the quality of the parts produced is affected by different design and manufacturing parameters, such as the part orientation, [...] Read more.

Additive Manufacturing (AM) has emerged as an innovative technology that gives designers several advantages, such as geometric freedom of design and less waste. However, the quality of the parts produced is affected by different design and manufacturing parameters, such as the part orientation, the nozzle temperature and speed, the support material, and the layer thickness. In this context, the layer thickness is considered an important AM parameter affecting the part quality and accuracy. Thus, in this paper, a new adaptative slicing method based on the cusp vector and the surface deviation is proposed with the aim of minimizing the dimensional defects of FFF printed parts and investigate the impact on the dimensional part tolerancing. An algorithm is developed to automatically extract data from the STL file, select the build orientation, and detect intersection points between the initial slicing and the STL mesh. The innovation of this algorithm is exhibited via adapting the slicing according to the surface curvature based on two factors: the cusp vector and the surface deviation. The suggested slicing technique guarantees dimensional accuracy, especially for complex feature shapes that are challenging to achieve using a uniform slicing approach. Finally, a preview of the slicing is displayed, and the G-code is generated to be used by the FFF machine. The case study consists of the dimensional tolerance inspection of prototypes manufactured using the conventional and adaptive slicing processes. The proposed method’s effectiveness is investigated using RE and CMM processes. The method demonstrates its reliability through the observed potential for accuracy improvements exceeding 0.6% and cost savings of up to 4.3% in specific scenarios. This reliability is substantiated by comparing the resulting dimensional tolerances and manufacturing costs. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Additive Manufacturing of Architected Metallic Materials)

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41 pages, 11611 KiB

Open AccessReview

Negative Thermal Expansion Metamaterials: A Review of Design, Fabrication, and Applications

by Devashish Dubey, Anooshe Sadat Mirhakimi and Mohamed A. Elbestawi

J. Manuf. Mater. Process. 2024, 8(1), 40; https://doi.org/10.3390/jmmp8010040 - 14 Feb 2024

Cited by 13 | Viewed by 6685

Abstract

Most materials conventionally found in nature expand with an increase in temperature. In actual systems and assemblies like precision instruments, this can cause thermal distortions which can be difficult to handle. Materials with a tendency to shrink with an increase in temperature can [...] Read more.

Most materials conventionally found in nature expand with an increase in temperature. In actual systems and assemblies like precision instruments, this can cause thermal distortions which can be difficult to handle. Materials with a tendency to shrink with an increase in temperature can be used alongside conventional materials to restrict the overall dimensional change of structures. Such structures, also called negative-thermal-expansion materials, could be crucial in applications like electronics, biomedicine, aerospace components, etc., which undergo high changes in temperature. This can be achieved using mechanically engineered materials, also called negative thermal expansion (NTE) mechanical metamaterials. Mechanical metamaterials are mechanically architected materials with novel properties that are rare in naturally occurring materials. NTE metamaterials utilize their artificially engineered architecture to attain the rare property of negative thermal expansion. The emergence of additive manufacturing has enabled the feasible production of their intricate architectures. Industrial processes such as laser powder bed fusion and direct energy deposition, both utilized in metal additive manufacturing, have proven successful in creating complex structures like lattice formations and multimaterial components in the industrial sector, rendering them suitable for manufacturing NTE structures. Nevertheless, this review examines a range of fabrication methods, encompassing both additive and traditional techniques, and explores the diverse materials used in the process. Despite NTE metamaterials being a prominent field of research, a comprehensive review of these architected materials is missing in the literature. This article aims to bridge this gap by providing a state-of-the-art review of these metamaterials, encompassing their design, fabrication, and cutting-edge applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Additive Manufacturing of Architected Metallic Materials)

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22 pages, 17157 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Experimental Evaluation of the Effects of Discrete-Grading-Induced Discontinuities on the Material Properties of Functionally Graded Ti-6Al-4V Lattices

by Junyang Ye, Ata Babazadeh-Naseri, C. Fred Higgs III and Benjamin J. Fregly

Materials 2024, 17(4), 822; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma17040822 - 8 Feb 2024

Viewed by 1362

Abstract

In this study, we compared the material properties of linearly and sharply graded Ti6Al4V additively manufactured samples to investigate whether the more severe discontinuities caused by sharp grading can reduce performance. We performed compression testing with digital image correlation (DIC) in two loading [...] Read more.

In this study, we compared the material properties of linearly and sharply graded Ti6Al4V additively manufactured samples to investigate whether the more severe discontinuities caused by sharp grading can reduce performance. We performed compression testing with digital image correlation (DIC) in two loading directions for each grading design to simulate iso-stress and iso-strain conditions. We extracted the elastic stiffness, yield strength, yield strain, and energy absorption capacity of each sample. In addition, we used micro-computed tomography (micro-CT) imaging to examine the printing quality and dimensional accuracy. We found that sharply graded struts have a 12.95% increase in strut cross-sectional areas, whereas linearly graded struts produced an average of 49.24% increase compared to design. However, sharply graded and linearly graded FGL samples do not have statistically significant differences in elastic stiffness and yield strength. For the iso-strain condition, the average DIC-corrected stiffnesses for linearly and sharply graded samples were 6.15 GPa and 5.43 GPa, respectively (p = 0.4466), and the yield stresses were 290.4 MPa and 291.2 MPa, respectively (p = 0.5734). Furthermore, we confirmed different types of printing defects using micro-CT, including defective pores and disconnected struts. These results suggest that the loss of material properties caused by manufacturing defects outweighs the adverse effects of discrete-grading-induced discontinuities. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Additive Manufacturing of Architected Metallic Materials)

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26 pages, 3809 KiB

Open AccessReview

Advancements in Metal Additive Manufacturing: A Comprehensive Review of Material Extrusion with Highly Filled Polymers

by Mahrukh Sadaf, Mario Bragaglia, Lidija Slemenik Perše and Francesca Nanni

J. Manuf. Mater. Process. 2024, 8(1), 14; https://doi.org/10.3390/jmmp8010014 - 16 Jan 2024

Cited by 18 | Viewed by 6124

Abstract

Additive manufacturing (AM) has attracted huge attention for manufacturing metals, ceramics, highly filled composites, or virgin polymers. Of all the AM methods, material extrusion (MEX) stands out as one of the most widely employed AM methods on a global scale, specifically when dealing [...] Read more.

Additive manufacturing (AM) has attracted huge attention for manufacturing metals, ceramics, highly filled composites, or virgin polymers. Of all the AM methods, material extrusion (MEX) stands out as one of the most widely employed AM methods on a global scale, specifically when dealing with thermoplastic polymers and composites, as this technique requires a very low initial investment and usage simplicity. This review extensively addresses the latest advancements in the field of MEX of feedstock made of polymers highly filled with metal particles. After developing a 3D model, the polymeric binder is removed from the 3D-printed component in a process called debinding. Furthermore, sintering is conducted at a temperature below the melting temperature of the metallic powder to obtain the fully densified solid component. The stages of MEX-based processing, which comprise the choice of powder, development of binder system, compounding, 3D printing, and post-treatment, i.e., debinding and sintering, are discussed. It is shown that both 3D printing and post-processing parameters are interconnected and interdependent factors, concurring in determining the resulting mechanical properties of the sintered metal. In particular, the polymeric binder, along with its removal, results to be one of the most critical factors in the success of the entire process. The mechanical properties of sintered components produced through MEX are generally inferior, compared with traditional techniques, as final MEX products are more porous. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Additive Manufacturing of Architected Metallic Materials)

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20 pages, 9582 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Experiment Investigation of the Compression Behaviors of Nickel-Coated Hybrid Lattice Structure with Enhanced Mechanical Properties

by Xiuxia Geng, Mingzhi Wang and Bingyu Hou

Micromachines 2023, 14(10), 1959; https://doi.org/10.3390/mi14101959 - 21 Oct 2023

Viewed by 1961

Abstract

The lattice metamaterial has attracted extensive attention due to its excellent specific strength, energy absorption capacity, and strong designability of the cell structure. This paper aims to explore the functional nickel plating on the basis of biomimetic-designed lattice structures, in order to achieve [...] Read more.

The lattice metamaterial has attracted extensive attention due to its excellent specific strength, energy absorption capacity, and strong designability of the cell structure. This paper aims to explore the functional nickel plating on the basis of biomimetic-designed lattice structures, in order to achieve higher stiffness, strength, and energy absorption characteristics. Two typical structures, the body-centered cubic (BCC) lattice and the bioinspired hierarchical circular lattice (HCirC), were considered. The BCC and HCirC lattice templates were prepared based on DLP (digital light processing) 3D printing. Based on this, chemical plating, as well as the composite plating of chemical plating followed by electroplating, was carried out to prepare the corresponding nickel-plated lattice structures. The mechanical properties and deformation failure mechanisms of the resin-based lattice, chemically plated lattice, and composite electroplated lattice structures were studied by using compression experiments. The results show that the metal coating can significantly improve the mechanical properties and energy absorption capacity of microlattices. For example, for the HCirC structure with the loading direction along the x-axis, the specific strength, specific stiffness, and specific energy absorption after composite electroplating increased by 546.9%, 120.7%, and 2113.8%, respectively. The shell–core structure formed through composite electroplating is the main factor for improving the mechanical properties of the lattice metamaterial. In addition, the functional nickel plating based on biomimetic structure design can further enhance the improvement space of mechanical performance. The research in this paper provides insights for exploring lighter and stronger lattice metamaterials and their multifunctional applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Additive Manufacturing of Architected Metallic Materials)

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12 pages, 5590 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effect of Vanadium Layer on Microstructure and Properties of TC4 (Ti-6Al-4V)/TiAl (Ti-48Al-2Cr-2Nb) Dissimilar Metals Produced by Laser Additive Manufacturing

by Haijiang Wang, Zhanqi Liu, Jianhui Liang, Wei Wei and Guili Yin

Coatings 2023, 13(9), 1638; https://doi.org/10.3390/coatings13091638 - 18 Sep 2023

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 1511

Abstract

Dissimilar metal samples of TC4/TiAl were successfully prepared by laser additive manufacturing (LAM) technology, with pure vanadium as the interlayer. The microstructure, phase composition, element distribution and mechanical properties at the interface of TC4/V and TiAl/V were analyzed by optical microscope (OM), scanning [...] Read more.

Dissimilar metal samples of TC4/TiAl were successfully prepared by laser additive manufacturing (LAM) technology, with pure vanadium as the interlayer. The microstructure, phase composition, element distribution and mechanical properties at the interface of TC4/V and TiAl/V were analyzed by optical microscope (OM), scanning electron microscope (SEM) and backscattering diffraction (EBSD). The experimental results showed that the interface microstructure of TiAl/V is mainly composed of γ, α₂ phase and V solid solution. The microstructure of the TC4/V interface is mainly composed of β-Ti and V solid solution. There are no holes, metallurgical defects or microcracks at the above two interfaces, and the interface is bonded well. With the increase in the number of deposition layers, the interface bonding depth increases, and its thickness increases from 30 μm to 80 μm. The mechanical properties tests showed that the tensile strength and elongation of dissimilar metals with two layers of V interlayer TC4/TiAl are the highest, and their values are 483 MPa and 0.35%, respectively. Compared with the one-layer V intermediate layer sample (tensile strength 405 MPa, elongation 0.24%), the tensile strength and elongation are increased by 19.2% and 45%, respectively. The tensile strength and elongation of dissimilar metals in three-layer V interlayer TC4/TiAl are the lowest, and their values are 350 MPa and 0.16%. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Additive Manufacturing of Architected Metallic Materials)

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16 pages, 16500 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Study of the Microstructure and Mechanical and Electrochemical Properties of CoCrFeNi High-Entropy Alloys Additive-Manufactured Using Laser Metal Deposition

by Guanghui Shao, Jiaxuan Lei, Fenglong Zhang, Shiyi Wang, Huiping Hu, Kai Wang, Ping Tan and Jianglong Yi

Coatings 2023, 13(9), 1583; https://doi.org/10.3390/coatings13091583 - 11 Sep 2023

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 1734

Abstract

This work demonstrates the successful additive manufacturing of an in situ-alloyed CoCrFeNi HEA with a single phase (FCC) structure via the laser metal deposition (LMD) technique. In this work, bulk specimens of the CoCrFeNi high entropy alloy (HEA) of size 15 mm × [...] Read more.

This work demonstrates the successful additive manufacturing of an in situ-alloyed CoCrFeNi HEA with a single phase (FCC) structure via the laser metal deposition (LMD) technique. In this work, bulk specimens of the CoCrFeNi high entropy alloy (HEA) of size 15 mm × 15 mm × 45 mm were additive-manufactured (AMed). An H320-type additive-subtractive manufacturing all-in-one system with a 2 kW fiber laser with a coaxial nozzle head integrated in a five-axis CNC machine was used. The effect of varying laser powers (1000 W, 1300 W, and 1600 W) on the microstructure and mechanical and electrochemical properties of the AMed HEA specimens was investigated. The AMed specimens were analyzed for their microstructure, elemental distributions, microhardness, and mechanical and electrochemical properties. An increase in the laser power led to a non-uniform cooling rate and non-steady solidification rates of the molten area during the AM process. As a result, the crystal constant decreased, and the microhardness fluctuated within a narrow range across the specimen. Among the three laser powers, the AMed CoCrFeNi HEA at 1300 W had the optimal mechanical properties and the best electrochemical behavior in 3.5 wt.% NaCl solution. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Additive Manufacturing of Architected Metallic Materials)

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