Investigating Bioaccessibility of Advanced Glycation Product Precursors in Gluten-Free Foods Using In Vitro Gastrointestinal System
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Sampling
2.2. Chemicals
2.3. Sugar Analysis
2.4. In Vitro Study
2.4.1. Extraction of GO and MGO
2.4.2. HPLC Analysis of Samples
2.5. Statistical Analysis
3. Results
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Fructose | Glucose | Sucrose | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Variables | Mean ± SD | Median (IQR) Min–Max | Mean ± SD | Median (IQR) Min–Max | Mean ± SD | Median (IQR) Min–Max |
Gluten-free bread (n = 10) | 0.4 ± 0.2 | 0.3 (0.5) 0.0–0.8 | 0.4 ± 0.4 | 0.3 (0.7) 0.0–1.0 | 1.9 ± 5 | 0.0 (0.7) 0.0–17.0 |
Control bread (n = 9) | 0.2 ± 0.3 | 0.0–0.87 0.0 (0.6) | 0.1 ± 0.3 | 0.0–0.7 0.0 (0.5) | 0.0 ± 0 | 0.0–0.0 0.0 (0.0) |
p value | 0.11 | 0.23 | 0.54 | |||
Gluten-free biscuit (n = 5) | 0.3 ± 0.2 | 0.3 (0.6) 0.0–0.7 | 3.9 ± 5.1 | 0.6 (9.0) 0.0–11.2 | 12.9 ± 12 | 18.5 (23.2) 0.0–23.9 |
Control biscuit (n = 5) | 1.2 ± 1.4 | 0.7 (1.6) 0.0–3.5 | 1.0 ± 0.9 | 0.8 (1.7) 0.0–2.3 | 22.1 ± 15 | 23.6 (23.5) 0.0–39.9 |
p value | 0.30 | 0.84 | 0.31 | |||
Gluten-free cookie (n = 11) | 0.4 ± 0.9 | 0.0 (0.5) 0.0–3.2 | 0.5 ± 1.3 | 0.0 (0.0) 0.0–4.3 | 19.5 ± 8 | 20.0 (10.3) 2.3–29.7 |
Control cookie (n = 9) | 0.5 ± 0.5 | 0.3 (1.1) 0.0–1.3 | 0.5 ± 0.6 | 0.2 (1.5) 0.0–1.7 | 25.3 ± 6 | 0.3 (1.9) 0.0–3.9 |
p value | 0.12 | 0.10 | 0.14 |
Gluten-Free | GO (µg/100 g) Mean ± SD | MGO (µg/100 g) Mean ± SD | Bioaccessibility (%) | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Pre-Digestion | Post-Digestion | Pre-Digestion | Post-Digestion | GO | MGO | |
1 | 17 ± 2 a | 223 ± 7 b | 72 ± 4 a | 537 ± 25 b | 1288 | 746 |
2 | 22 ± 1 a | 154 ± 4 b | 81 ± 4 a | 230 ± 7 b | 691 | 282 |
3 | 17 ± 1 a | 157 ± 5 b | 68 ± 2 a | 149 ± 5 b | 944 | 218 |
4 | 46 ± 2 a | 179 ± 5 b | 233 ± 11 a | 407 ± 18 b | 390 | 175 |
5 | 51 ± 3 a | 246 ± 12 b | 227 ± 11 a | 449 ± 20 b | 485 | 198 |
6 | 18 ± 2 a | 130 ± 6 b | 43 ± 2 a | 71 ± 4 b | 738 | 166 |
7 | 42 ± 2 a | 44 ± 2 a | 56 ± 3 a | 427 ± 19 b | 105 | 766 |
8 | 49 ± 2 a | 611 ± 16 b | 34 ± 2 a | 105 ± 4 b | 1247 | 305 |
9 | 170 ± 8 a | 222 ± 6 b | 442 ± 10 a | 502 ± 23 b | 130 | 114 |
10 | 147 ± 3 b | 279 ± 13 b | 378 ± 10 a | 914 ± 42 b | 189 | 242 |
* Median (IQR) Min–Max | 44.0 (32.8) 16.0–178.0 | 199.5 (97.8) 42.0–626.0 | 76.0 (182.5) 33.0–444.8 | 416.0 (358.8) 68.8–954.0 | ||
Control | ||||||
1, 2, and 3 | 209 ± 8 a | 161 ± 3 b | 18 ± 1 a | 161 ± 5 b | 77 | 878 |
4 | 31 ± 2 a | 166 ± 8 b | 130 ± 4 a | 304 ± 14 b | 540 | 234 |
5 | 17 ± 1 a | 43 ± 4 b | 22 ± 1 a | 98 ± 6 b | 255 | 444 |
6 | 41 ± 3 a | 182 ± 8 b | 257 ± 5 a | 544 ± 25 b | 448 | 212 |
7 | 11 ± 1 a | 135 ± 6 b | 211 ± 8 a | 522 ± 29 b | 1269 | 248 |
8 | 49 ± 3 a | 169 ± 8 b | 59 ± 2 a | 274 ± 13 b | 342 | 467 |
9 | 23 ± 1 a | 101 ± 6 b | 183 ± 6 a | 244 ± 66 b | 434 | 134 |
* Median (IQR) Min–Max | 35.5 (186.3) 0.0–219.0 | 158.0 (66.3) 0.0–190.0 | 40.0 (167.0) 0.0–263.0 | 167.5 (160.0) 0.0–568.0 | ||
Comparison of mean values of GO and MGO between groups | ||||||
Gluten-free | 57.9 ± 53 | 224.6 ± 14 | 163 ± 143 | 379 ± 245 | ||
Control | 80.4 ± 88 | 127.7 ± 59 | 91.5 ± 92 | 246 ± 169 | ||
p value | 0.95 | 0.001 ** | 0.01 ** | 0.11 |
GO (µg/100 g) Mean ± SD | MGO (µg/100 g) Mean ± SD | Bioaccessibility (%) | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Gluten-Free | Pre-Digestion | Post-Digestion | Pre-Digestion | Post-Digestion | GO | MGO |
11 | 17 ± 1 a | 401 ± 11 b | 68 ± 2 a | 831 ± 19 b | 2406 | 1228 |
12 | 19 ± 2 a | 313 ± 15 b | 55 ± 1 a | 165 ± 4 b | 1617 | 301 |
13 | 138 ± 7 a | 394 ± 18 b | 114 ± 4 a | 182 ± 8 b | 286 | 160 |
14 | 12 ± 1 a | 451 ± 18 b | 97 ± 3 a | 1778 ± 80 b | 3866 | 1839 |
15 | 80 ± 3 a | 169 ± 7 b | 68 ± 3 a | 92 ± 6 b | 212 | 135 |
* Median (IQR) Min–max | 19.0 (67.0) 11.0–144.0 | 391.0 (116.0) 163.0–469.0 | 69.0 (35.0) 54.0–118.0 | 183.0 (689.0) 87.0–1855.0 | ||
Control | ||||||
11 | 62 ± 2 a | 832 ± 33 b | 322 ± 7 a | 1562 ± 71 b | 1335 | 486 |
12 | 84 ± 4 a | 525 ± 12 b | 469 ± 22 a | 1145 ± 52 b | 627 | 244 |
13 | 94 ± 5 a | 281 ± 10 b | 374 ± 8 a | 399 ± 13 b | 298 | 107 |
14 | 26 ± 1 a | 830 ± 38 b | 200 ± 4 a | 2252 ± 102 b | 3152 | 1126 |
15 | 63 ± 4 a | 665 ± 30 b | 214 ± 12 z | 1327 ± 60 b | 1056 | 619 |
* Median (IQR) Min–max | 64.0 (29.0) 25.0–99.0 | 667.0 (321.0) 271.0–866.0 | 320.0 (179.0) 196.0–490.0 | 1332.0 (538.0) 387.0–2350.0 | ||
Comparison of mean values of GO and MGO between groups | ||||||
Gluten-free | 53.1 ± 50 | 345.6 ± 102 | 80.2 ± 22 | 609.6 ± 665 | ||
Control | 65.9 ± 24.3 | 626.6 ± 215 | 315.8 ± 104 | 1337.2 ± 624 | ||
p value | 0.12 | 0.001 ** | < 0.001 ** | 0.004 ** |
GO (µg/100 g) Mean ± SD | MGO (µg/100 g) Mean ± SD | Bioaccessibility (%) | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Gluten-Free | Pre-Digestion | Post-Digestion | Pre-Digestion | Post-Digestion | GO | MGO | |
16 | 203 ± 9 a | 557 ± 17 b | 1346 ± 61 a | 2297 ± 104 b | 275 | 171 | |
17 | 28 ± 1 a | 137 ± 8 b | 85 ± 4 a | 188 ± 9 b | 482 | 220 | |
18 | 139 ± 7 a | 365 ± 13 b | 513 ± 24 a | 533 ± 24 a | 263 | 104 | |
19 | 18 ± 1 a | 76 ± 2 b | 79 ± 3 a | 381 ± 9 b | 420 | 480 | |
20 | 24 ± 2 a | 68 ± 2 b | 37 ± 2 a | 89 ± 2 b | 285 | 239 | |
21 | 12 ± 2 a | 46 ± 2 b | 68 ± 3 a | 120 ± 6 b | 370 | 176 | |
22 | 31 ± 2 a | 19 ± 1 b | 0 ± 0 a | 0 ± 0 a | 62 | 0 | |
23 | 14 ± 1 a | 51 ± 4 b | 34 ± 2 a | 125 ± 9 b | 356 | 371 | |
24 | 37 ± 1 a | 66 ± 2 b | 71 ± 2 a | 252 ± 8 b | 178 | 356 | |
25 | 15 ± 2 a | 70 ± 3 b | 34 ± 1 a | 55 ± 1 a | 477 | 162 | |
26 | 7 ± 1 a | 74 ± 4 b | 10 ± 2 a | 74 ± 5 b | 1110 | 762 | |
* Median (IQR) Min–max | 25.0 (22.0) 6.0–211.0 | 70.0 (80.0) 18.0–568.0 | 68.0 (51.0) 0.0–1404.0 | 125.0 (299.0) 0.0–2397.0 | |||
Control | |||||||
16 and 17 | 29 ± 1 a | 485 ± 19 b | 69 ± 4 a | 572 ± 26 b | 1672 | 825 | |
18 | 70 ± 2 a | 314 ± 15 b | 197 ± 9 a | 206 ± 16 b | 451 | 105 | |
19 | 43 ± 2 a | 139 ± 7 b | 99 ± 2 a | 293 ± 14 b | 322 | 297 | |
20 | 74 ± 3 a | 302 ± 14 b | 465 ± 21 a | 884 ± 35 b | 408 | 190 | |
21 and 22 | 140 ± 7 a | 207 ± 9 b | 556 ± 22 a | 560 ± 25 a | 148 | 101 | |
23 | 77 ± 3 a | 279 ± 13 b | 124 ± 4 a | 361 ± 16 b | 362 | 290 | |
24 | 413 ± 19 a | 110 ± 5 b | 335 ± 15 a | 101 ± 6 b | 27 | 30 | |
* Median (IQR) Min–max | 74.0 (99.0) 27.0–431.0 | 280.0 (130.0) 106.0–504.0 | 198.0 (389.0) 65.0–578.0 | 534.0 (305.0) 96.0–919.0 | |||
Comparison of mean values of GO and MGO between groups | |||||||
Gluten-free | 49.7 ± 61 | 138.9 ± 162 | 207 ± 391 | 373.9 ± 636 | |||
Control | 112.7 ± 115.4 | 281.0 ± 129 | 274 ± 198 | 456.6 ± 230 | |||
p value | <0.001 ** | <0.001 ** | <0.001 ** | <0.001 ** |
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Serin, Y.; Akbulut, G.; Yaman, M. Investigating Bioaccessibility of Advanced Glycation Product Precursors in Gluten-Free Foods Using In Vitro Gastrointestinal System. Medicina 2023, 59, 1578. https://doi.org/10.3390/medicina59091578
Serin Y, Akbulut G, Yaman M. Investigating Bioaccessibility of Advanced Glycation Product Precursors in Gluten-Free Foods Using In Vitro Gastrointestinal System. Medicina. 2023; 59(9):1578. https://doi.org/10.3390/medicina59091578
Chicago/Turabian StyleSerin, Yeliz, Gamze Akbulut, and Mustafa Yaman. 2023. "Investigating Bioaccessibility of Advanced Glycation Product Precursors in Gluten-Free Foods Using In Vitro Gastrointestinal System" Medicina 59, no. 9: 1578. https://doi.org/10.3390/medicina59091578