Lubricants

12 pages, 17511 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Investigating Friction and Antiwear Characteristics of Organic and Synthetic Oils Using h-BN Nanoparticle Additives: A Tribological Study

by Umida Ziyamukhamedova, Shah Wasil, Sanjay Kumar, Rakesh Sehgal, M. F. Wani, Chandra Shekhar Singh, Nodirjon Tursunov and Himanshu Shekhar Gupta

Lubricants 2024, 12(1), 27; https://doi.org/10.3390/lubricants12010027 - 22 Jan 2024

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2252

Abstract

Friction and wear are two major elements that influence the life of a variety of equipment. According to estimates, as much as 30% of the energy used is dissipated as friction. However, this figure can be reduced by developing materials that enhance surfaces [...] Read more.

Friction and wear are two major elements that influence the life of a variety of equipment. According to estimates, as much as 30% of the energy used is dissipated as friction. However, this figure can be reduced by developing materials that enhance surfaces and apply lubricants appropriately. This study aims to analyze the impact of hexagonal boron nitride (h-BN) nanoparticles on the rheological and antiwear characteristics of four distinct oil varieties, namely Society of Automotive Engineers SAE-20W50, soybean, Polyalphaolefin PAO-4, and olive oils. The results of the tribological tests demonstrated a noteworthy enhancement in antiwear characteristics with the addition of 0.2 wt.% of h-BN nanolubricant. Among all nanolubricants, the maximum reduction in coefficient of friction (COF) and wear scar diameter was observed at 0.2 wt.% of h-BN in SAE-20W50 oil. Compared to the base oils, the wear scar diameter decreased by 17.93%, 8.80%, 22.65%, and 24.04% for (soybean oil and 0.2 wt.% of h-BN), (SAE20W50 and 0.2 wt.% of h-BN), (PAO4 and 0.2 wt.% of h-BN), and (olive oil and 0.2 wt.% of h-BN), respectively. Rheological test results indicated that with the addition of h-BN nanoparticles, the viscosity of the base oils significantly increased. The maximum viscosity was observed at 40 °C for SAE20W50 base nanolubricants, according to the rheological measurements. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Lubricant Additives and Ash: Do We Know Enough?)

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13 pages, 11166 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effect of Speed and Number of Sliding Cycles on the Film Formation Behavior of Fluorine-Based Grease

by Jeong-Bin Chi, Hyuk-Jae Ma, Gyu-Sun Lee, Ju-Ho Park and Dae-Eun Kim

Lubricants 2024, 12(1), 26; https://doi.org/10.3390/lubricants12010026 - 20 Jan 2024

Viewed by 1944

Abstract

Grease, a type of lubricant, finds applications in various mechanical components due to advantages such as shape stability and sealing. However, grease is classified as a non-Newtonian fluid, and its film formation behavior is not fully understood to date due to variations in [...] Read more.

Grease, a type of lubricant, finds applications in various mechanical components due to advantages such as shape stability and sealing. However, grease is classified as a non-Newtonian fluid, and its film formation behavior is not fully understood to date due to variations in the mechanism related to the film formation behavior of grease based on factors like the base oil, bleed oil, thickener, and additives. In this study, the film formation behavior of fluorine-based grease was analyzed through the 3D profile of the grease after a friction test. In particular, the film formation behavior of the grease during sliding motion was analyzed. The experimental equipment used was a reciprocating-motion-type experimental equipment. Variations in the 3D profile were observed based on the speed and the cycle, indicating differences in the film formation behavior corresponding to changes in viscosity. In contrast to numerous studies that have observed the film formation behavior of grease under rolling motion, investigating the film formation behavior during the initial cycles of sliding motion will provide a profound understanding of the grease’s film formation process. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Current and Future Trends in Tribological Research: Fundamentals and Applications–The 10th Anniversary of Lubricants)

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20 pages, 10327 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Nonlinear Dynamic Analysis of a Spur Gear Pair System with Wear Considering the Meshing Position

by Zhibo Geng, Min Chen, Jiao Wang, Yu Xia, Yun Kong and Ke Xiao

Lubricants 2024, 12(1), 25; https://doi.org/10.3390/lubricants12010025 - 16 Jan 2024

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1936

Abstract

In this paper, a nonlinear dynamic model of a parallel shaft gear system consisting of two involute spur gears is developed to investigate the coupling effect between the gradual surface wear of gear teeth over time and nonlinear dynamic characteristics. A uniform wear [...] Read more.

In this paper, a nonlinear dynamic model of a parallel shaft gear system consisting of two involute spur gears is developed to investigate the coupling effect between the gradual surface wear of gear teeth over time and nonlinear dynamic characteristics. A uniform wear model that accounts for how the volumetric wear of the gear teeth affect their meshing position, backlash, and stiffness is proposed. Additionally, a nonlinear dynamic model with six degrees of freedom is described that considers friction, time-varying gear backlash, and time-varying meshing stiffness. The proposed model significantly changes the mesh stiffness, not only in terms of value but also in terms of contact ratio. Furthermore, the nonlinear dynamic characteristics of the gear system vary significantly. It is found that the gradual wear of gear teeth affects the meshing position and further has a significant impact on the nonlinear dynamic characteristics of the spur gear system. This paper provides a basis for studying the nonlinear dynamic characteristics of the spur gear system as it experiences the gradual wear of teeth over time. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Friction–Vibration Interactions)

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23 pages, 9472 KiB

Open AccessReview

The Application of Ionic Liquids in the Lubrication Field: Their Design, Mechanisms, and Behaviors

by Mengmeng Liu, Jing Ni, Caixia Zhang, Ruishen Wang, Qiang Cheng, Weihao Liang and Zhifeng Liu

Lubricants 2024, 12(1), 24; https://doi.org/10.3390/lubricants12010024 - 13 Jan 2024

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2952

Abstract

Ionic liquids (ILs) are molten organic salts consisting of organic cations and weakly coordinating organic/inorganic anions at room temperature. ILs have excellent physical and chemical properties such as high thermal stability, high combustible temperature, high miscibility with organic compounds and so on, making [...] Read more.

Ionic liquids (ILs) are molten organic salts consisting of organic cations and weakly coordinating organic/inorganic anions at room temperature. ILs have excellent physical and chemical properties such as high thermal stability, high combustible temperature, high miscibility with organic compounds and so on, making them good candidates for high performance lubricants and lubricant additives. The functional designability of ILs makes them novel lubrication materials that can break through the bottleneck of the active control of friction and lubrication. This paper firstly briefly introduces how to design the physical and chemical properties of the ILs required for different friction conditions by bonding specific cations with anions. Then, the lubrication mechanisms of ILs as base lubricants and additives for oils and water are focused on. The correlation between the structure of ILs and the lubrication results are established, which can guide the structural design of ILs in different applications. The response behaviors of friction characteristics under external electric fields are analyzed, which can provide a theoretical basis for the intelligent control of friction based on ILs. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Polymeric and Colloidal Lubricants)

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27 pages, 3498 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Skid Resistance Performance Assessment by a PLS Regression-Based Predictive Model with Non-Standard Texture Parameters

by Ivana Ban, Aleksandra Deluka-Tibljaš and Igor Ružić

Lubricants 2024, 12(1), 23; https://doi.org/10.3390/lubricants12010023 - 12 Jan 2024

Viewed by 1643

Abstract

The importance of skid resistance performance assessment in pavement engineering and management is crucial due to its direct influence on road safety features. This paper provides a new approach to skid resistance predictive model definition based on experimentally obtained texture roughness parameters. The [...] Read more.

The importance of skid resistance performance assessment in pavement engineering and management is crucial due to its direct influence on road safety features. This paper provides a new approach to skid resistance predictive model definition based on experimentally obtained texture roughness parameters. The originally developed methodology is based on a photogrammetry technique for pavement surface data acquisition and analysis, named the Close-Range Orthogonal Photogrammetry (CROP) method. Texture roughness features were analyzed on pavement surface profiles extracted from surface 3D models, obtained by the CROP method. Selected non-standard roughness parameters were used as predictors in the skid resistance model. The predictive model was developed by the partial least squares (PLS) method as a feature engineering procedure in the regression analysis framework. The proposed model was compared to the simple linear regression model with a traditional texture parameter Mean Profile Depth as the predictor, showing better predictive strength when multiple non-standard texture parameters were used. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Friction Assessment in Pavement Engineering)

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14 pages, 12904 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Laser Surface Texturing for Ground Surface: Frictional Effect of Plateau Roughness and Surface Textures under Oil Lubrication

by Hongzhi Yue, Johannes Schneider and Jianxin Deng

Lubricants 2024, 12(1), 22; https://doi.org/10.3390/lubricants12010022 - 11 Jan 2024

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2062

Abstract

Laser surface texturing has proven beneficial in improving tribological performance in different lubrication regimes. However, the interaction between plateau roughness and surface texture remains to be further investigated, even though rough surfaces are common in engineering applications. In the present study, we investigated [...] Read more.

Laser surface texturing has proven beneficial in improving tribological performance in different lubrication regimes. However, the interaction between plateau roughness and surface texture remains to be further investigated, even though rough surfaces are common in engineering applications. In the present study, we investigated the frictional influence of surface texturing of ground surfaces under different lubrication conditions. Channel textures with different depths and area ratios were fabricated on ground surfaces, and their friction was tested in reciprocating tests. The experimental findings indicate that the textures caused increased friction for ground surfaces under boundary or mixed lubrication when the interface is well lubricated. Nevertheless, when the oil supply was limited, an up to 40% friction reduction was observed under test conditions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Tribology of Textured Surfaces)

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Graphical abstract

13 pages, 5483 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effect of a Substrate’s Preheating Temperature on the Microstructure and Properties of Ni-Based Alloy Coatings

by Yu Liu, Haiquan Jin, Tianhao Xu, Zhiqiang Xu, Fengming Du, Miao Yu, Yali Gao and Dongdong Zhang

Lubricants 2024, 12(1), 21; https://doi.org/10.3390/lubricants12010021 - 10 Jan 2024

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1751

Abstract

Laser cladding is a new technology to fabricate a coating on the surface of a metal substrate. The properties on copper substrates are usually not very good due to the high thermal conductivity and reflectivity. The appropriate preheating temperature is helpful to fabricate [...] Read more.

Laser cladding is a new technology to fabricate a coating on the surface of a metal substrate. The properties on copper substrates are usually not very good due to the high thermal conductivity and reflectivity. The appropriate preheating temperature is helpful to fabricate coatings with good quality and properties, especially for copper substrates. In order to investigate the effect of different preheating temperatures, four coatings with different preheating temperatures (100, 200, 300 and 400 °C) were fabricated via a laser on a copper substrate. The microstructures and properties of four coatings were investigated using SEM, XRD, EDS, a Vickers microhardness meter, a wear tester and an electrochemical workstation. The results show that the elements from Ni-based alloy powder were uniformly distributed among the binding region, which obtained a good metallurgical bonding. The microstructure was mainly composited of cellular, dendrite and plane crystals, and the main reinforced phases were γ (Fe, Ni), Cr_0.09Fe_0.7Ni_0.21, WC and Ni₃B. The values of average microhardness of the four coatings were 614.3, 941.6, 668.1 and 663.1 HV_0.5, respectively. The wear rates of the four coatings were 9.7, 4.9, 12.5 and 13.3 × 10⁻⁵ mm³·N⁻¹·m⁻¹, respectively, which were less than that of the copper substrate (4.3 × 10−3 mm³·N⁻¹·m⁻¹). The decrease in wear rate was due to the existence of the reinforced phases, such as WC, Ni₃B, M₇C₃ (M=Fe, Cr) and Cr_0.09Fe_0.7Ni_0.21. The fine crystals in the coating preheated at 200 °C also improved the wear resistance. Additionally, the minimum values of corrosion current density were 3.26 × 10⁻⁵, 2.34 × 10⁻⁷, 4.02 × 10⁻⁶ and 4.21 × 10⁻⁶ mA·mm⁻², respectively. It can be seen that the coating preheated at 200 °C had higher microhardness, lower wear rates and better corrosion resistance due to the existence of reinforced phases and fine and uniform crystals. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Laser Surface Engineering for Tribology)

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19 pages, 9725 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Generalised Method for Friction Optimisation of Surface Textured Seals by Machine Learning

by Markus Brase, Jonathan Binder, Mirco Jonkeren and Matthias Wangenheim

Lubricants 2024, 12(1), 20; https://doi.org/10.3390/lubricants12010020 - 9 Jan 2024

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2127

Abstract

Friction behaviour is an important characteristic of dynamic seals. Surface texturing is an effective method to control the friction level without the need to change materials or lubricants. However, it is difficult to put the manual prediction of optimal friction reducing textures as [...] Read more.

Friction behaviour is an important characteristic of dynamic seals. Surface texturing is an effective method to control the friction level without the need to change materials or lubricants. However, it is difficult to put the manual prediction of optimal friction reducing textures as a function of operating conditions into practice. Therefore, in this paper, we use machine learning techniques for the prediction of optimal texture parameters for friction optimisation. The application of pneumatic piston seals serves as an illustrative example to demonstrate the machine learning method and results. The analyses of this work are based on experimentally determined data of surface texture parameters, defined by the dimple diameter, distance, and depth. Furthermore friction data between the seal and the pneumatic cylinder are measured in different friction regimes from boundary over mixed up to hydrodynamic lubrication. A particular innovation of this work is the definition of a generalised method that guides the entire machine learning process from raw data acquisition to model prediction, without committing to only a few learning algorithms. A large number of 26 regression learning algorithms are used to build machine learning models through supervised learning to evaluate the suitability of different models in the specific application context. In order to select the best model, mathematical metrics and tribological relationships, like Stribeck curves, are applied and compared with each other. The resulting model is utilised in the subsequent friction optimisation step, in which optimal surface texture parameter combinations with the lowest friction coefficients are predicted over a defined interval of relative velocities. Finally, the friction behaviour is evaluated in the context of the model and optimal value combinations of the surface texture parameters are identified for different lubrication conditions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Advances in Machine Learning in Tribology)

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20 pages, 5811 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effect of Operating Parameters on the Mulching Device Wear Behavior of a Ridging and Mulching Machine

by Qinxue Zhao, Fei Dai, Ruijie Shi, Wuyun Zhao, Pengqing Xu, Huan Deng and Haifu Pan

Lubricants 2024, 12(1), 19; https://doi.org/10.3390/lubricants12010019 - 9 Jan 2024

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1695

Abstract

To conduct an in-depth investigation of the impact of various operating parameters on mulching device wear during the operation of full-film dual-row ridging and mulching machine mulching, this paper employed EDEM software to create a 3D discrete element model of how a mulching [...] Read more.

To conduct an in-depth investigation of the impact of various operating parameters on mulching device wear during the operation of full-film dual-row ridging and mulching machine mulching, this paper employed EDEM software to create a 3D discrete element model of how a mulching device interacts with the soil on the seed bed and simulated the dynamic process of the interaction between the mulching device and the soil during the mulching operation. We analyzed the cladding wear process between the cladding device and the cladding sand particles, and two areas of impact wear on the overburden conveyor housing and areas of wear on the chute deflector scratches were detected. A three-factor, three-level Box–Behnken experimental design approach was used, with mathematical modeling of the relationship between the scraper conveyor lifting line speed, seed bed cover, scraper spacing, and wear of the cover device, finding the optimal combination of operating parameters for mulching devices. The results of the simulation test indicated that the mulching device experienced a minimum wear of 0.958 × 10⁻³ mm at a lifting line speed of 0.7 m·s⁻¹ for the scraper conveyor, a mulching volume of 2.55 kg·s⁻¹ for the seed bed, and a scraper spacing of 98 mm. The results of the field trial validation showed that, in a comparison between simulated wear parts and a mulching operation prototype of the same two wear parts, the established discrete element model appeared reasonable concerning the structural parameters, with a feasible abrasion mechanism process of sand particles on the soil-covering devices, demonstrating the model’s reliability and validity. It can serve as a guide for optimizing the design of mechanized full-film dual-furrow seed bed mulching operation. Full article

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21 pages, 12326 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Influence of 1-Ethyl-3-methylimidazolium Diethylphosphate Ionic Liquid on the Performance of Eu- and Gd-Doped Diamond-like Carbon Coatings

by Mohammadamin Sadeghi, Takeru Omiya, Filipe Fernandes, Luís Vilhena, Amilcar Ramalho and Fábio Ferreira

Lubricants 2024, 12(1), 18; https://doi.org/10.3390/lubricants12010018 - 8 Jan 2024

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1887

Abstract

A composite lubricating system that combines solid and liquid lubrication can create a synergistic effect by leveraging the strengths of both types of lubricants. Solid lubrication coatings possess advantageous load-bearing abilities and exhibit low volatility. By adopting this approach, the system retains the [...] Read more.

A composite lubricating system that combines solid and liquid lubrication can create a synergistic effect by leveraging the strengths of both types of lubricants. Solid lubrication coatings possess advantageous load-bearing abilities and exhibit low volatility. By adopting this approach, the system retains the merits of solid lubrication while simultaneously harnessing the advantages of liquid lubrication. The unique properties of diamond-like carbon coatings (DLCs) offer the potential to create binding locations for lubricant additives by introducing dopant elements that have a high affinity with additives. In the present work, the combined use of europium-doped diamond-like carbon (Eu-doped DLC) with varying atomic concentrations of the dopant element (1.7 at. % and 2.4 at. %) and gadolinium-doped diamond-like carbon (Gd-doped DLC) with different atomic concentrations of the dopant element (1.7 at. % and 2.3 at. %) was studied alongside a pure DLC coating and the incorporation of an ionic liquid (IL) additive in a tribological block-on-ring system. The focus was on the 1-Ethyl-3-methylimidazolium diethylphosphate ionic liquid with a concentration of 1 wt. % in polyalphaolefin (PAO) 8. Among the investigated pairs, the coefficient of friction (CoF) of 1.7 at. % Eu-doped DLC coupled with the IL was the smallest in boundary, mixed, and elastohydrodynamic lubrication regimes. Quantification of wear was challenging due to minimal and localized wear on the DLC coating surfaces. The decrease in friction within the boundary lubrication regime underscores the promise of mechanical systems that integrate 1.7 atomic percent Europium-doped diamond-like carbon coatings with ionic liquids (IL). This study presents a compelling avenue for future scholarly exploration and research efforts focused on reducing friction and improving the efficiency of moving components, particularly in situations where tribological properties exert a substantial influence Full article

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13 pages, 4685 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Effect of Slider Configuration on Lubricant Depletion at the Slider/Disk Contact Interface

by Yuxin Chen, Dongdong Zhou and Zhengqiang Tang

Lubricants 2024, 12(1), 17; https://doi.org/10.3390/lubricants12010017 - 8 Jan 2024

Viewed by 1859

Abstract

With decreasing clearance between the protrusion of a slider and a disk interface, there is a higher likelihood of contact occurring during shock or vibration experienced by hard disk drives (HDDs), which may induce lubricant depletion. Based on the molecular dynamics (MD) model [...] Read more.

With decreasing clearance between the protrusion of a slider and a disk interface, there is a higher likelihood of contact occurring during shock or vibration experienced by hard disk drives (HDDs), which may induce lubricant depletion. Based on the molecular dynamics (MD) model of perfluoropolyether lubricant with a coarse-grained beads spring approach, we compared the slider configurations’ influence on the lubricant transfer volume quantitatively. By further investigating the parameters of the cylindrical asperities, including the width and depth, as well as considering the asperity amounts of the slider, we successfully observed the lubricant depletion process during slider and disk contact. The results demonstrate that the penetration depth was reduced as the asperity amount increased, mainly owing to the increased contact area between the surfaces. The decreasing depth of the asperity and the increasing width of the asperity helped to reduce the depletion volume. In addition, the utilization of a cylindrical slider configuration can contribute to a reduction in lubricant depletion resulting from contact between the head and disk. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Dynamics of Lubricated Interfaces)

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21 pages, 12334 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Analysis of Water-Lubricated Journal Bearings Assisted by a Small Quantity of Secondary Lubricating Medium with Navier–Stokes Equation and VOF Model

by Xiaohan Zhang, Tao Yu, Hao Ji, Feng Guo, Wenbin Duan, Peng Liang and Ling Ma

Lubricants 2024, 12(1), 16; https://doi.org/10.3390/lubricants12010016 - 7 Jan 2024

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2333

Abstract

Due to the low viscosity of water, water-lubricated bearings are susceptible to significant wear and noise in demanding operating conditions. It has been demonstrated that a small quantity of secondary lubricating medium can improve the lubrication performance of water-lubricated contact surfaces and achieve [...] Read more.

Due to the low viscosity of water, water-lubricated bearings are susceptible to significant wear and noise in demanding operating conditions. It has been demonstrated that a small quantity of secondary lubricating medium can improve the lubrication performance of water-lubricated contact surfaces and achieve the purpose of temporary risk aversion. As a further step, the feasibility of the proposed idea is experimentally validated on a water-lubricated bearing test bench. A numerical model that couples the N–S equation and the VOF model is then developed to investigate the behavior of the flow field lubricated by pure water and water with a small quantity of the secondary lubricating medium. This model provides the predictions of important quantities such as the load-carrying capacity, the secondary lubricating medium volume fraction and the contact pressure under different lubricated conditions. The results show that the secondary lubricating medium can enter into the contact region and improve the lubrication performance of water-lubricated bearings, especially at lower shaft rotational speeds. Therefore, the feasibility of our proposed idea is verified, which provides a promising approach to reduce the wear and friction of water-lubricated bearings when they encounter short-time severe working conditions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Water-Lubricated Bearings)

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23 pages, 18505 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Multi-Field Coupling Numerical Analysis and Experimental Validation of Surface-Textured Metal Seals in Roller Cone Bits

by Yi Ma, Ziang Li, Ziyang Yuan, Xiangkai Meng, Xudong Peng and Jinbo Jiang

Lubricants 2024, 12(1), 15; https://doi.org/10.3390/lubricants12010015 - 6 Jan 2024

Viewed by 1689

Abstract

Metal seals play a crucial role in ensuring the dependable functioning of the bearing system in roller cone bits. Due to the intricate nature of downhole conditions, the microstructure design of sealing end faces, specifically the surface texture, is rarely used in metal [...] Read more.

Metal seals play a crucial role in ensuring the dependable functioning of the bearing system in roller cone bits. Due to the intricate nature of downhole conditions, the microstructure design of sealing end faces, specifically the surface texture, is rarely used in metal seals. This study focuses on examining the applicability of surface texture technology in metal seals for cone bits to enhance the lubrication characteristics and friction and wear properties of liquid film between end faces. A multi-field coupling model of surface-textured metal seals was established and experimentally verified. The liquid film carrying the capacity and sealing performance of five different shapes of surface-textured end faces (circle, ellipse I (horizontal), ellipse II (vertical), triangle, and chevron) were investigated under varying rotational speeds and environmental pressures. The influences of texture parameters, including depth and area ratio, on the lubrication characteristics and friction reduction effects of surface-textured metal seals were investigated, and the microscopic wear morphology characteristics of the sealing end faces were analyzed. The results show that surface textures can effectively improve the liquid film state and comprehensive performance of metal seals. Specifically, triangle textures significantly enhance the hydrodynamic pressure effect and weaken the abrasive wear and adhesive wear of the end faces. However, when the environmental pressure is p ≥ 30 MPa, the surface textures gradually lose the advantages of dynamic lubrication but can still reduce friction. The proper texture depth and area ratio can achieve zero leakage (obtained theoretically) and minimal friction in metal seals. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Tribology of Textured Surfaces)

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20 pages, 6400 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Power Loss Analysis of an Oil-Jet Lubricated Angular Contact Ball Bearing: Theoretical and Experimental Investigations

by Lionel Darul, Thomas Touret, Christophe Changenet and Fabrice Ville

Lubricants 2024, 12(1), 14; https://doi.org/10.3390/lubricants12010014 - 5 Jan 2024

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2681

Abstract

This study presents a theoretical and experimental analysis to quantify the power losses generated by an oil jet lubricated angular contact ball bearing. The analysis is conducted for a moderate speed range (N∙dm product less than

10^{6}

) and a limited applied [...] Read more.

This study presents a theoretical and experimental analysis to quantify the power losses generated by an oil jet lubricated angular contact ball bearing. The analysis is conducted for a moderate speed range (N∙dm product less than

10^{6}

) and a limited applied load (<5% of the static capacity). The lubrication regime of each ball is studied through a theoretical model and varies from Iso-Viscous Rigid to Elasto-Hydrodynamic. Therefore, the hydrodynamic effects are considered in the power loss calculation. An experimental campaign is carried out and the influence of several parameters (applied load, oil injection temperature, speed, etc.) is studied. A good agreement is found between the developed model and the measurements. It is shown that the radial applied load has no influence on power losses, unlike speed and axial load. This can be explained by the load distribution and the hydrodynamic rolling contribution on the low loaded balls. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Tribological Study in Rolling Bearing)

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16 pages, 5770 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effect of Grease Viscosity on Channeling Properties of Ball Bearings

by Tomohiko Obata, Hiroki Fujiwara, Fumihiro Itoigawa and Satoru Maegawa

Lubricants 2024, 12(1), 13; https://doi.org/10.3390/lubricants12010013 - 4 Jan 2024

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2583

Abstract

Grease-lubricated rolling bearings transition from the churning phase to the channeling phase. This transition property affects grease life and torque properties. Therefore, the relationship between grease yield stress and grease degradation during operation, which affects this transition, has been investigated. However, there have [...] Read more.

Grease-lubricated rolling bearings transition from the churning phase to the channeling phase. This transition property affects grease life and torque properties. Therefore, the relationship between grease yield stress and grease degradation during operation, which affects this transition, has been investigated. However, there have been few studies on grease flow that affects the transition. In this study, the mechanism of grease reduction on the races was investigated for small bearings operated at low speeds, where thermal degradation and softening of the grease are less likely to occur. It was inferred that the grease transfer to the cage affects the channeling transition and that the amount of transfer varies depending on the initial grease viscosity. These findings can be applied to grease composition and cage design and are useful in providing bearings with excellent low-torque characteristics, such as in industrial motor applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Friction and Wear of Rolling-Element Bearings)

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16 pages, 8180 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Deterministic Simulation of Surface Textures for the Piston Ring/Cylinder Liner System in a Free Piston Linear Engine

by Felipe Kevin Correia Luz, Francisco J. Profito, Marcelo Braga dos Santos, Samuel A. N. Silva and Henara Lillian Costa

Lubricants 2024, 12(1), 12; https://doi.org/10.3390/lubricants12010012 - 3 Jan 2024

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1928

Abstract

The use of synthesis gas (SYNGAS) from waste gasification has been pointed out as a key strategy to help the energy transition. However, SYNGAS’ low calorific power is considered a difficult obstacle to its technological use in internal combustion engines. To overcome this, [...] Read more.

The use of synthesis gas (SYNGAS) from waste gasification has been pointed out as a key strategy to help the energy transition. However, SYNGAS’ low calorific power is considered a difficult obstacle to its technological use in internal combustion engines. To overcome this, a novel free-piston linear motor has been proposed to pave the way for the use of SYNGAS in the mobility sector. Surface texturing has vast potential to reduce friction losses in this system. This study utilizes a deterministic numerical model to investigate the mixed lubrication performance of a textured piston ring/cylinder liner conjunction in a free piston engine. The model considers the simultaneous solution of the lubrication and asperity contact problems at the roughness scale, including texturing features on the cylinder surface. The numerical model employs the Reynolds equation with mass-conserving cavitation to calculate the inter-asperity fluid pressure. The rough contact model utilizes the Hertz theory for elastic contact to calculate the contact pressure at each asperity between the piston liner surface and the admitted smooth and rigid ring surface. Surface texturing demonstrated remarkable effectiveness, particularly in the hydrodynamic lubrication regime, with a maximum friction reduction of 38.5% observed for an area coverage of 50%. This was accompanied by a notable shift in the transition from the boundary to the mixed lubrication regime. The textured surfaces exhibited consistent efficiency in reducing fluid pressure and shear stress as the coverage of the textured areas increased. The incorporation of dimples on these surfaces played a crucial role by augmenting the lubricant storage capacity while concurrently reducing the real shear and contact areas. This study offers valuable insights into the nuanced friction-reducing mechanisms of surface textures, illuminating their influence on the coefficient of friction and the formation of lubricant films across various lubrication regimes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Tribology of Textured Surfaces)

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15 pages, 4170 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Power Loss Evaluation of an E-Axle Gearbox Considering the Influence of Gear Oil Factors

by Shufa Yan, Zhuo Kong, Hongwei Liu, Lin Zhang, Xiaoyu Hu and Yuanjing Hou

Lubricants 2024, 12(1), 11; https://doi.org/10.3390/lubricants12010011 - 2 Jan 2024

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2146

Abstract

An accurate power loss prediction in the gearbox is desirable for improving vehicle efficiency. To achieve this objective, evaluating the power loss is necessary. However, power loss is influenced by factors such as the gearbox structure, operating conditions, and gear oil formulation, making [...] Read more.

An accurate power loss prediction in the gearbox is desirable for improving vehicle efficiency. To achieve this objective, evaluating the power loss is necessary. However, power loss is influenced by factors such as the gearbox structure, operating conditions, and gear oil formulation, making power loss evaluation a bottleneck in practice. Therefore, a systematic modeling methodology was developed to evaluate the gearbox power loss in an E-Axle that focuses on the influence of the gear oil factors in the load and no-load cases. The gearbox used in a light-duty truck E-Axle was tested to verify the proposed model. The test was performed under various operating speeds, input loads, and oil temperatures, and four types of gear oil with different formulations were also included to quantify their influence on the power loss. The results showed that the gearbox power loss was significantly influenced by the E-Axle operating conditions, oil temperatures, and different gear oil formulations, promoting different power losses. The comparison results showed good consistency between the predicted power loss and the measured data. The proposed methodology can be utilized to effectively predict the power loss of the E-Axle gearbox and further improve the E-Axle efficiency by selecting suitable oil formulations and adjusting oil temperatures. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Advances in Automotive Powertrain Lubrication)

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17 pages, 4652 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Time-Frequency Fusion Features-Based GSWOA-KELM Model for Gear Fault Diagnosis

by Qin Hu, Haiting Zhou, Chengcheng Wang, Chenxi Zhu, Jiaping Shen and Peng He

Lubricants 2024, 12(1), 10; https://doi.org/10.3390/lubricants12010010 - 29 Dec 2023

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1817

Abstract

To improve the accuracy of gear fault diagnosis and overcome the low diagnostic accuracy of the model caused by manual parameter selection, a combined diagnostic model based on time-frequency fusion features is combined with the improved global search whale optimization algorithm (GSWOA) to [...] Read more.

To improve the accuracy of gear fault diagnosis and overcome the low diagnostic accuracy of the model caused by manual parameter selection, a combined diagnostic model based on time-frequency fusion features is combined with the improved global search whale optimization algorithm (GSWOA) to optimize the fault diagnosis capability of the kernel extreme learning machine (KELM). First, the time-domain and frequency-domain features of the gear fault state are extracted separately, and feature vectors are constructed through feature fusion, which overcomes the limitations of single features. Second, the GSWOA based on three strategies is used to optimize the regularization coefficient C and kernel function parameter γ of KELM, and a GSWOA-KELM fault diagnosis model is built to avoid the problem of low fault diagnosis accuracy caused by the manual selection of KELM parameters. Finally, the public dataset from Southeast University is taken to verify the performance of the proposed model by comparing it with KELM, SSA-KELM, and WOA-KELM models. The experimental results demonstrate that the improved time-frequency fusion features-based GSWOA-KELM model shows faster convergence speed and stronger global search ability. Compared with KELM, SSA-KELM, and WOA-KELM models, the performance of the proposed model has been improved by 11.33%, 8.67%, and 1.33%, respectively. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Tribology and Machine Learning: New Perspectives and Challenges)

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16 pages, 6920 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Tribological Performance of a Plasma Electrolytic Oxidation-Coated Mg Alloy in Graphene-Incorporated Ethanol

by Sukanta Bhowmick, Faiz Muhaffel, Shayan Shirzadian, Huseyin Cimenoglu and Ahmet T. Alpas

Lubricants 2024, 12(1), 9; https://doi.org/10.3390/lubricants12010009 - 28 Dec 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1874

Abstract

This study investigated the friction and wear characteristics of a plasma electrolytic oxidation (PEO)-coated Mg–Al alloy (AZ31) in sliding contact against steel using graphene nanoplatelets (GNPs) containing ethanol as a lubricant. The results revealed that the typically high coefficient of friction (COF) of [...] Read more.

This study investigated the friction and wear characteristics of a plasma electrolytic oxidation (PEO)-coated Mg–Al alloy (AZ31) in sliding contact against steel using graphene nanoplatelets (GNPs) containing ethanol as a lubricant. The results revealed that the typically high coefficient of friction (COF) of PEO-coated surfaces under dry sliding (0.74) was notably reduced to 0.18 during the sliding tests conducted in GNP-free ethanol. When the ethanol contained 5 × 10⁻⁴ wt.% GNPs, the COF of the uncoated AZ31 alloy further dropped to 0.17. The PEO-coated surfaces achieved a significantly lower COF of 0.07 and demonstrated a marked reduction in wear rate, attributed to the formation of a tribolayer incorporating graphene. These findings highlight the significant potential of GNP-incorporated ethanol to improve the tribological performance of PEO-coated AZ31, presenting a promising avenue for advancing lightweight, sustainable, and efficient automotive technologies. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Plasma Surface Treatments for Wear and Corrosion Protection)

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18 pages, 5158 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Incep-FrictionNet-Based Pavement Texture Friction Level Classification Prediction Method

by Guomin Xu, Xiuquan Lin, Shifa Wang, You Zhan, Jing Liu and He Huang

Lubricants 2024, 12(1), 8; https://doi.org/10.3390/lubricants12010008 - 28 Dec 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1733

Abstract

Pavement skid resistance is crucial for driving safety, and pavement texture significantly impacts skid resistance performance. To realize the application of pavement texture data in assessing pavement skid resistance performance, this paper proposes a convolutional neural network model based on the InceptionV4 module [...] Read more.

Pavement skid resistance is crucial for driving safety, and pavement texture significantly impacts skid resistance performance. To realize the application of pavement texture data in assessing pavement skid resistance performance, this paper proposes a convolutional neural network model based on the InceptionV4 module to predict the pavement friction level from the pavement texture dataset. The surface texture data of indoor test-rutted slabs were collected using a portable laser scanner. The surface friction coefficient of rutted slabs was measured using a pendulum tribometer. After data pre-processing, a total of nine types of texture data that are in the range of 0.4 to 0.8 skid resistance levels are selected at an interval of 0.05 for training, validation, and testing of the network model. The same dataset and training parameters were also used to train a conventional convolutional network model for comparison. The results showed that the proposed network model achieved 97.89% classification accuracy on the test set, which was 11.94 percentage points higher than the comparison model. This demonstrates that the proposed model in this paper can evaluate pavement friction levels by non-contact scanning of textures and has higher evaluation accuracy. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Friction Assessment in Pavement Engineering)

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21 pages, 4201 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Study on the Dynamic Characteristics of Gears Considering Surface Topography in a Mixed Lubrication State

by Gong Cheng, Jianzuo Ma, Junyang Li, Kang Sun, Kang Wang and Yun Wang

Lubricants 2024, 12(1), 7; https://doi.org/10.3390/lubricants12010007 - 27 Dec 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2122

Abstract

Based on mixed lubrication analysis, considering the influence of rough interface contact stiffness, contact damping, and interface friction on the gear transmission system, the relationship between interface contact and the overall performance of the gear transmission system has been established. First, the surface [...] Read more.

Based on mixed lubrication analysis, considering the influence of rough interface contact stiffness, contact damping, and interface friction on the gear transmission system, the relationship between interface contact and the overall performance of the gear transmission system has been established. First, the surface topography is characterized using statistical parameters of rough surfaces, and the contact stiffness and damping for tooth surfaces with different roughnesses are calculated. Subsequently, a six degree of freedom gear tribo-dynamics coupling model is developed. Finally, the established tribo-dynamics model is employed to investigate the relationship between surface roughness and the overall performance of the gear transmission system. This study provides a more intimate connection between the contact interface and the general behavior of the gear transmission system, enabling a better representation of real-world engineering problems. The research findings reveal that contact stiffness and damping decrease with increasing surface roughness. Higher roughness leads to greater gear vibration amplitude. Moreover, elevated surface roughness results in intensified meshing force and more significant energy loss. Surprisingly, when the roughness is appropriate, gears with rough surfaces lose less energy than those with smooth surfaces. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Friction–Vibration Interactions)

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21 pages, 762 KiB

Open AccessReview

Tribological Application of Nanocomposite Additives in Industrial Oils

by Milan Bukvić, Sandra Gajević, Aleksandar Skulić, Slobodan Savić, Aleksandar Ašonja and Blaža Stojanović

Lubricants 2024, 12(1), 6; https://doi.org/10.3390/lubricants12010006 - 24 Dec 2023

Cited by 23 | Viewed by 2744

Abstract

The demand for an improvement in the tribological properties of lubricants used in various industrial plants, the automotive industry, and other power transmissions has resulted in the development of a whole family of improved lubricants based on nanotechnology. Especially important are nanotube additives, [...] Read more.

The demand for an improvement in the tribological properties of lubricants used in various industrial plants, the automotive industry, and other power transmissions has resulted in the development of a whole family of improved lubricants based on nanotechnology. Especially important are nanotube additives, which significantly improve the tribological properties of lubricants, primarily by reducing the friction coefficient and wear of the coupled elements but also by reducing the temperature load and increasing the stability of the oil film between the lubricated surfaces. The properties of nanotube-based additives were further improved using elements such as metal oxides and compounds based on titanium, molybdenum, aluminum, etc. This paper presents the results obtained in the field of research and application of nanocomposite lubricant additives. It also gives a partial comparative analysis of the research conducted in this field. The primary goal of this paper is to analyze the research results in the field of the application of nanotubes in lubricants and to indicate the importance of their application, such as improving the tribological properties of machines and reducing power losses. Furthermore, this paper shows the negative impact of nanoparticles on the environment and human health and the costs of applying some types of nanoparticles. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Additives for Lubricating Oil and Grease: Mechanism, Properties and Applications)

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12 pages, 13241 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effect of Nb Addition on the Corrosion and Wear Resistance of Laser Clad AlCr2FeCoNi High-Entropy Alloy Coatings

by Xiulin Ji, Kunpeng Guan, Yayun Bao, Zhongfa Mao, Fengtao Wang and Houfu Dai

Lubricants 2024, 12(1), 5; https://doi.org/10.3390/lubricants12010005 - 24 Dec 2023

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1981

Abstract

Laser clad AlCr2FeCoNiNbx (x = 0, 0.5, 1.0, 1.5, 2.0, with x values in molar ratio) high-entropy alloy (HEA) coatings were fabricated on Q345 carbon steel. This study delves into the impact of Nb incorporation on the reciprocating sliding wear resistance [...] Read more.

Laser clad AlCr2FeCoNiNbx (x = 0, 0.5, 1.0, 1.5, 2.0, with x values in molar ratio) high-entropy alloy (HEA) coatings were fabricated on Q345 carbon steel. This study delves into the impact of Nb incorporation on the reciprocating sliding wear resistance of these laser clad coatings against a Φ6 mm silicon nitride ball. The microstructure of the as-clad AlCr2FeCoNiNbx coatings transformed from a single Face-Centered Cubic (FCC) solid solution (when x = 0) to the hypoeutectic state (when x = 0.5) and progressed to the hypereutectic state (when x ≥ 1.0). This evolution was marked by an increase in the Laves phase and a decrease in FCC. Consequently, the HEA coatings exhibited a gradually increasing Vickers hardness, reaching a peak at HV 820. Despite a decline in corrosion resistance, there was a notable enhancement in wear resistance, and the friction of the HEA coating could be reduced by Nb addition. The phase evolution induced by Nb addition led to a shift in the predominant wear mechanism from delamination wear to abrasive wear. The wear rate of Nb0.5 was impressively low, at 6.2 × 10⁻⁶ mm N⁻¹ m⁻¹ when reciprocating sliding under 20 N in air. In comparison to Nb0, Nb0.5 showcased 3.6, 7.2, and 6.5 times higher wear resistance at 5 N, 10 N, and 20 N, respectively. Under all applied loads, Nb1.5 has the lowest wear rate among all HEA coatings. This substantiates that the subtle introduction of Laves phase-forming elements to modulate hardness and oxidation ability proves to be an effective strategy for improving the wear resistance of HEA coatings. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Laser Surface Engineering for Tribology)

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17 pages, 13322 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effect of Composite Bionic Micro-Texture on Cutting Performance of Tools

by Tiantian Xu, Chunlu Ma, Hu Shi, Kai Xiao, Jinpeng Liu and Qinghua Li

Lubricants 2024, 12(1), 4; https://doi.org/10.3390/lubricants12010004 - 22 Dec 2023

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1980

Abstract

Dry cutting is an effective method to realize the concept of green cutting today. However, in the process of cutting bearing steel, the high temperatures and high pressures produced by the cutting tool and chip under dry friction seriously affect the machining performance [...] Read more.

Dry cutting is an effective method to realize the concept of green cutting today. However, in the process of cutting bearing steel, the high temperatures and high pressures produced by the cutting tool and chip under dry friction seriously affect the machining performance of the tool. Therefore, a bionic microstructure tool based on bionics is proposed to improve the cutting performance and reduce friction by changing the size parameters of the microstructure. On the basis of finite element simulation and cutting tests, the cutting force, surface roughness, and chip shape are used to evaluate the cutting performance. It is found that composite bionic micro-textured tools have a significantly reduced cutting force compared with non-micro-textured tools; composite bionic micro-textured tools lead to a reduction in surface roughness of 10–25%; and composite bionic micro-textured tools are more prone to enhancing the curling and breaking of chips. In addition, with the increase in the microstructure area occupancy, the cutting performance of the tool was also significantly improved. Moreover, it was found that the cutting performance of the tool was improved when the area occupancy of the micro-texture on the front face of the tool was increased. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Friction and Wear of Cutting Tools and Cutting Tool Materials)

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16 pages, 6291 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Evaluation of Antioxidant Properties and Molecular Design of Lubricant Antioxidants Based on QSPR Model

by Jianfang Liu, Yaoyun Zhang, Chenglingzi Yi, Rongrong Zhang, Sicheng Yang, Ting Liu, Dan Jia, Qing Yang and Shuai Peng

Lubricants 2024, 12(1), 3; https://doi.org/10.3390/lubricants12010003 - 22 Dec 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1944

Abstract

Two quantitative structure–property relationship (QSPR) models of hindered phenolic antioxidants in lubricating oils were established to help guide the molecular structure design of antioxidants. Firstly, stepwise regression (SWR) was used to filter out essential molecular descriptors without autocorrelation, including electronic, topological, spatial, and [...] Read more.

Two quantitative structure–property relationship (QSPR) models of hindered phenolic antioxidants in lubricating oils were established to help guide the molecular structure design of antioxidants. Firstly, stepwise regression (SWR) was used to filter out essential molecular descriptors without autocorrelation, including electronic, topological, spatial, and structural descriptors, and multiple linear regression (MLR) was used to construct QSPR models based on the screened variables. The two models are statistically sound, with R² values of 0.942 and 0.941, respectively. The models’ reliability was verified by the frontier molecular orbital energy gaps of the antioxidants. A hindered phenolic additive was designed based on the models. Its antioxidant property is calculated to be 20.9% and 11.0% higher than that of typical commercial antioxidants methyl 3-(3,5-di-tert-butyl-4-hydroxyphenyl) propionate and 2,2′-methylenebis(6-tert-butyl-4-methylphenol), respectively. The structure–property relationship of hindered phenolic antioxidants in lubricating oil obtained by computer-assisted analysis can not only predict the antioxidant properties of existing hindered phenolic additives but also provide theoretical basis and data support for the design or modification of lubricating oil additives with higher antioxidant properties. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Additives for Lubricating Oil and Grease: Mechanism, Properties and Applications)

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16 pages, 6091 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Estimation of Road Wetness from a Passenger Car

by Wiyao Edjeou, Ebrahim Riahi, Manuela Gennesseaux, Veronique Cerezo and Minh-Tan Do

Lubricants 2024, 12(1), 2; https://doi.org/10.3390/lubricants12010002 - 20 Dec 2023

Viewed by 1815

Abstract

This paper presents an evaluation of a system aiming at estimating water depths on a road surface. Using accelerometers, the system records the vibrations of a wheel arch liner due to impacts of water droplets. The system setup, including the location of the [...] Read more.

This paper presents an evaluation of a system aiming at estimating water depths on a road surface. Using accelerometers, the system records the vibrations of a wheel arch liner due to impacts of water droplets. The system setup, including the location of the accelerometers on a wheel arch and the data acquisition, is described. Tests were performed with a passenger car on various road surfaces and at different vehicle speeds and water depths. Signals recorded by the accelerometers are filtered and processed. The link between the acceleration amplitude, the water depth, and the vehicle speed is consistent with results from previous studies. The effect of the surface texture is less obvious and needs further investigations. A mathematical model has been developed to relate the acceleration amplitude to the water depth. The potential application of the developed system to on-board evaluation of pavement wetness, and consequently the pavement skid resistance, is discussed. Perspectives for driver assistance, or more generally, for autonomous driving to improve traffic safety, are also highlighted. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Friction Assessment in Pavement Engineering)

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13 pages, 1952 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Influence of Load and Speed on the Initial Breakdown of Rolling Bearings Exposed to Electrical Currents

by Steffen Puchtler, Robert Maier, Martin Kuhn and Yves Burkhardt

Lubricants 2024, 12(1), 1; https://doi.org/10.3390/lubricants12010001 - 19 Dec 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1860

Abstract

The reason for the failure of electric vehicle drives is increasingly current-induced damage to rolling bearings. Studies show that rolling bearings are more susceptible to current pass-through after the first occurrence of unwanted bearing currents. To investigate this effect, a test plan is [...] Read more.

The reason for the failure of electric vehicle drives is increasingly current-induced damage to rolling bearings. Studies show that rolling bearings are more susceptible to current pass-through after the first occurrence of unwanted bearing currents. To investigate this effect, a test plan is introduced with variations in axial and radial loads, as well as rotational speeds. A new bearing is mechanically run-in for each test point and then subjected to a realistic voltage signal of gradually increasing amplitude. After the initial breakdown, the different voltage amplitudes are applied again to investigate the behavior after the initial breakdown. During the whole test, the maximum current, the duration and the dissipated energy of each breakdown are measured. The results provide insights into the processes after the initial breakdown and the stochastic nature of the breakdown behavior. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Behavior of Lubricated Bearings in Electric Circuits)

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Lubricants, Volume 12, Issue 1 (January 2024) – 27 articles

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