Buildings

24 pages, 2535 KB

Open AccessArticle

Obtaining of Composite Cements with Addition of Fly Ash

by Galiya Rakhimova, Gulim Syndarbekova, Nurgali Zhanikulov, Bakytkul Yerkebayeva, Ekaterina Potapova and Murat Rakhimov

Buildings 2025, 15(19), 3523; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15193523 - 30 Sep 2025

Abstract

The potential for creating composite cements by incorporating fly ash is demonstrated. Analysis revealed that the fly ash examined consists of 69.66 wt. % silicon oxide, 21.34 wt. % aluminum oxide, 1.57 wt. % calcium oxide and 2.78 wt. % iron oxide. Fly [...] Read more.

The potential for creating composite cements by incorporating fly ash is demonstrated. Analysis revealed that the fly ash examined consists of 69.66 wt. % silicon oxide, 21.34 wt. % aluminum oxide, 1.57 wt. % calcium oxide and 2.78 wt. % iron oxide. Fly ash mainly consists of quartz (SiO₂), goethite (FeO(OH)) and mullite (3Al₂O₃·2SiO₂). The properties of the cement composition containing 5 to 25 wt. % fly ash were studied. Incorporating fly ash enhances system dispersion, promotes mixture uniformity, and stimulates the pozzolanic reaction. Compositions of composite cements consisting of 90% CEM I 42.5 and 10% fly ash were developed. The cement stone based on the obtained composite cement had a compacted structure with a density of 2.160 g/cm³, which is 9.4% higher than the control sample. It is shown that when composite cement containing 10% fly ash interacts with water, hydration reactions of cement minerals (C₃S, C₂S, C₃A and C₄AF) begin first. This is accompanied by the formation of hydrate neoplasms, such as calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH)₂) and calcium hydrosilicates (C-S-H). Fly ash particles containing amorphous silica progressively participate in a pozzolanic reaction with Ca(OH)₂, leading to the formation of additional calcium hydrosilicates phases. This process enhances structural densification and reduces the porosity of the cement matrix. After 28 days of curing, the compressive strength of the resulting composite cements ranged from 42.1 to 54.2 MPa, aligning with the strength classes 32.5 and 42.5 as specified by GOST 31108-2020. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Building Materials, and Repair & Renovation)

25 pages, 5641 KB

Open AccessArticle

Comparative Thermal Performance and Return on Investment of Glazing Configurations in Building Envelopes: The Case of the Plataforma Gubernamental Norte in Quito, Ecuador

by Patricio Simbaña-Escobar, Santiago Mena-Hernández, Evelyn Chérrez Córdova and Natalia Alvarado-Arias

Buildings 2025, 15(19), 3522; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15193522 - 30 Sep 2025

Abstract

Glazed façades play a decisive role in building energy performance, particularly in high-radiation equatorial climates. This study examines the thermal behavior and economic feasibility of three glazing systems—10 mm monolithic clear glass, laminated solar-control glass, and selective double glazing—applied to the Plataforma Gubernamental [...] Read more.

Glazed façades play a decisive role in building energy performance, particularly in high-radiation equatorial climates. This study examines the thermal behavior and economic feasibility of three glazing systems—10 mm monolithic clear glass, laminated solar-control glass, and selective double glazing—applied to the Plataforma Gubernamental Norte, the largest institutional building in Ecuador. Dynamic simulations using DesignBuilder with the EnergyPlus engine assessed solar gains, HVAC demand, and operative temperatures, complemented by a sensitivity analysis of SHGC, U-value, and Tvis. Results indicate that selective double glazing reduced annual HVAC consumption by 78.21% (110.6 MWh), while laminated glazing achieved a 55.40% reduction. SHGC and U-value emerged as the most influential parameters, whereas Tvis had no impact on energy loads. Despite strong technical performance, the economic analysis revealed payback periods exceeding 235 years under Ecuador’s subsidized tariff (USD 0.10/kWh), compared to the 18–25 years commonly observed in Europe. This highlights the “efficiency paradox”: advanced glazing solutions deliver significant energy savings but remain financially unfeasible in subsidy-driven contexts. The findings underscore the need for policy reforms to better align façade design strategies with energy resilience, an issue particularly relevant after Ecuador’s 2024 electricity crisis and ongoing debates on subsidy elimination. Full article

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22 pages, 4120 KB

Open AccessArticle

Investigation on the Mechanical Response of a Prefabricated Underground Pipe Gallery with a Flexible Energy Dissipation Node: An Experimental Study

by Enhua Zhang, Haiying Cao, Ping Wang, Zhen Zhao and Jiefeng Liu

Buildings 2025, 15(19), 3521; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15193521 - 30 Sep 2025

Abstract

Prefabricated pipe galleries have received increasing attention attributed to their advantages of a convenient construction, short cycle, and high intensification. In this study, a flexible-connection node structure for underground pipe galleries is proposed. The structure made by a polyurea grouting slurry is adopted [...] Read more.

Prefabricated pipe galleries have received increasing attention attributed to their advantages of a convenient construction, short cycle, and high intensification. In this study, a flexible-connection node structure for underground pipe galleries is proposed. The structure made by a polyurea grouting slurry is adopted as the “outer skin” of the node, and the spring vibration isolation bearing is adopted as the “inner rib” of the node. By conducting a series of model tests, the influence of the node types on the mechanical behavior of underground pipe galleries under dynamic compaction and mechanical vibration is studied. The results show that the acceleration and dynamic strain attenuation rates of the flexible-connection node under dynamic compaction are 2.33–3.13 times and 2.63–3.83 times as that of the rigid-connection node, respectively. The acceleration and dynamic strain attenuation rate of the flexible-connection node under machine vibration are 3.01–3.53 times and 4.5–14.73 times as that of the rigid-connection node, respectively. Although residual dynamic earth pressure is monitored in the pipe gallery structure under both connection modes, a reduction on the pressure is achieved by the flexible-connection node. This study would be helpful for the design, operation, and maintenance of underground pipe gallery structures. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Vibration Control of Civil Structures)

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13 pages, 426 KB

Open AccessArticle

An Analysis of Barriers to the Implementation of Energy-Efficient Technologies in Residential Buildings: A Quantitative Approach

by Lesiba George Mollo and Takondwa Chomey

Buildings 2025, 15(19), 3520; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15193520 - 30 Sep 2025

Abstract

Building owners and occupants encounter challenges in implementing energy-efficient technologies arising from high upfront costs, limited awareness, and inconsistent policy enforcement. This study aims to investigate the barriers that prevent the adoption of energy-efficient technologies in residential buildings. A case study research design [...] Read more.

Building owners and occupants encounter challenges in implementing energy-efficient technologies arising from high upfront costs, limited awareness, and inconsistent policy enforcement. This study aims to investigate the barriers that prevent the adoption of energy-efficient technologies in residential buildings. A case study research design was used to collect quantitative data using a survey questionnaire in the Brandwag area of the Mangaung Metropolitan Municipality in South Africa. The findings reflect building occupants’ perceptions regarding the effectiveness of various barriers encountered during the implementation of energy-efficient technologies in buildings. Notably, the highest-ranked barrier was the limited availability of financial support, which received a mean score of 4.19, while the lowest-ranked barrier was the shortage of qualified or skilled professionals, with a mean score of 3.78. An integrated strategy that simultaneously addresses financial processes, technical capacity building, and standardized regulations is essential for the successful adoption of energy-efficient technologies in residential buildings. However, a limitation of the study is its reliance on a survey-based research methodology for data collection. Although a quantitative approach was prioritized, the low response rate of the survey limits the generalizability of the findings. Future research should address this limitation by employing a mixed-methods research design for comparable evaluations focusing on South Africa, not just a province. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Building Energy, Physics, Environment, and Systems)

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22 pages, 3419 KB

Open AccessArticle

A Small-Sample Prediction Model for Ground Surface Settlement in Shield Tunneling Based on Adjacent-Ring Graph Convolutional Networks (GCN-SSPM)

by Jinpo Li, Haoxuan Huang and Gang Wang

Buildings 2025, 15(19), 3519; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15193519 - 30 Sep 2025

Abstract

In some projects, a lack of data causes problems for presenting an accurate prediction model for surface settlement caused by shield tunneling. Existing models often rely on large volumes of data and struggle to maintain accuracy and reliability in shield tunneling. In particular, [...] Read more.

In some projects, a lack of data causes problems for presenting an accurate prediction model for surface settlement caused by shield tunneling. Existing models often rely on large volumes of data and struggle to maintain accuracy and reliability in shield tunneling. In particular, the spatial dependency between adjacent rings is overlooked. To address these limitations, this study presents a small-sample prediction framework for settlement induced by shield tunneling, using an adjacent-ring graph convolutional network (GCN-SSPM). Gaussian smoothing, empirical mode decomposition (EMD), and principal component analysis (PCA) are integrated into the model, which incorporates spatial topological priors by constructing a ring-based adjacency graph to extract essential features. A dynamic ensemble strategy is further employed to enhance robustness across layered geological conditions. Monitoring data from the Wuhan Metro project is used to demonstrate that GCN-SSPM yields accurate and stable predictions, particularly in zones facing abrupt settlement shifts. Compared to LSTM+GRU+Attention and XGBoost, the proposed model reduces RMSE by over 90% (LSTM) and 75% (XGBoost), respectively, while achieving an R² of about 0.71. Notably, the ensemble assigns over 70% of predictive weight to GCN-SSPM in disturbance-sensitive zones, emphasizing its effectiveness in capturing spatially coupled and nonlinear settlement behavior. The prediction error remains within ±1.2 mm, indicating strong potential for practical applications in intelligent construction and early risk mitigation in complex geological conditions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Building Structures)

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31 pages, 13120 KB

Open AccessArticle

Assessment of Age-Friendly Streets in High-Density Urban Areas Using AFEAT, Street View Imagery, and Deep Learning: A Case Study of Qinhuai District, Nanjing, China

by Xiaoguang Liu, Yiyang Lv, Wangtao Li, Lihua Peng and Zhen Wu

Buildings 2025, 15(19), 3518; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15193518 - 30 Sep 2025

Abstract

With the rapid urban aging trend in China, evaluating the age-friendliness of street environments is critical for inclusive urban planning. This study proposes the Age-Friendly Environment Assessment Tool (AFEAT) to assess street-level age-friendliness in high-density urban contexts, grounded in the World Health Organization’s [...] Read more.

With the rapid urban aging trend in China, evaluating the age-friendliness of street environments is critical for inclusive urban planning. This study proposes the Age-Friendly Environment Assessment Tool (AFEAT) to assess street-level age-friendliness in high-density urban contexts, grounded in the World Health Organization’s (WHO) Global Age-Friendly Cities: A Guide and adapted to the spatial characteristics of Nanjing’s Qinhuai District. By integrating multi-source data such as street-view image segmentation, Point of Interest (POI)-based network accessibility, kernel density estimation, Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP)-derived indicator weights, and Random Forest regression, the study develops a comprehensive and spatialized evaluation framework. The results reveal significant spatial disparities in age-friendliness across street segments, with Safe Mobility, Healthcare Services, and Walkable Environment identified as the most influential factors for older adults. High-performing areas are concentrated in the central urban core, while peripheral zones face challenges such as poor walkability, insufficient lighting, and a lack of facilities. The study recommends strengthening a walkability-based age-friendly safety and healthcare support system and optimizing the spatial distribution of recreational and medical facilities to address mismatches between supply and demand. These findings provide practical guidance for targeted, evidence-based interventions aimed at fostering equitable and resilient urban environments for aging populations. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Architectural Design, Urban Science, and Real Estate)

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17 pages, 1849 KB

Open AccessArticle

Suitability of Residential Neighborhoods for Hosting Events: A Case Study of Riyadh, Saudi Arabia

by Sameeh Alarabi

Buildings 2025, 15(19), 3517; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15193517 - 29 Sep 2025

Abstract

Public events serve as a foundational mechanism for shaping the social and spatial dynamics of urban environments. Despite widespread recognition of their physical, psychological, and social impacts at the city scale, a significant gap persists in research addressing the social and spatial suitability [...] Read more.

Public events serve as a foundational mechanism for shaping the social and spatial dynamics of urban environments. Despite widespread recognition of their physical, psychological, and social impacts at the city scale, a significant gap persists in research addressing the social and spatial suitability of public spaces at the neighborhood level, particularly within the Arab urban context. This study investigates residential neighborhoods in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia, to assess how public events foster community engagement, cultural diversity, and social cohesion. Drawing on survey data from 510 residents, statistical analysis reveals that demographic variables such as age, gender, and professional sector influence participation, with youth and women demonstrating notably higher levels of engagement. Moreover, population density emerges as a critical factor in determining the appropriateness of event settings, with medium-sized gatherings in open spaces especially parks proving most effective. The findings emphasize the importance of designing inclusive and culturally responsive events, offering actionable insights for urban planning in rapidly growing cities. The study further highlights the need to reimagine neighborhood parks and open spaces as adaptable venues, equipped with essential infrastructure and governed by streamlined regulatory frameworks. Participants expressed a clear preference for accessible, medium-scale cultural events that prioritize safety, environmental sustainability, and enhanced public amenities, including transportation and sanitation services. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Urban Sustainability: Sustainable Housing and Communities—2nd Edition)

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19 pages, 13644 KB

Open AccessArticle

Rock Surface Crack Recognition Based on Improved Mask R-CNN with CBAM and BiFPN

by Yu Hu, Naifu Deng, Fan Ye, Qinglong Zhang and Yuchen Yan

Buildings 2025, 15(19), 3516; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15193516 - 29 Sep 2025

Abstract

To address the challenges of multi-scale distribution, low contrast and background interference in rock crack identification, this paper proposes an improved Mask R-CNN model (CBAM-BiFPN-Mask R-CNN) that integrates the convolutional block attention mechanism (CBAM) module and the bidirectional feature pyramid network (BiFPN) module. [...] Read more.

To address the challenges of multi-scale distribution, low contrast and background interference in rock crack identification, this paper proposes an improved Mask R-CNN model (CBAM-BiFPN-Mask R-CNN) that integrates the convolutional block attention mechanism (CBAM) module and the bidirectional feature pyramid network (BiFPN) module. A dataset of 1028 rock surface crack images was constructed. The robustness of the model was improved by dynamically combining Gaussian blurring, noise overlay, and color adjustment to enhance data augmentation strategies. The model embeds the CBAM module after the residual block of the ResNet50 backbone network, strengthens the crack-related feature response through channel attention, and uses spatial attention to focus on the spatial distribution of cracks; at the same time, it replaces the traditional FPN with BiFPN, realizes the adaptive fusion of cross-scale features through learnable weights, and optimizes multi-scale crack feature extraction. Experimental results show that the improved model significantly improves the crack recognition effect in complex rock mass scenarios. The mAP index, precision and recall rate are improved by 8.36%, 9.1% and 12.7%, respectively, compared with the baseline model. This research provides an effective solution for rock crack detection in complex geological environments, especially the missed detection of small cracks and complex backgrounds. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Scientific Developments in Structural Damage Identification)

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24 pages, 5450 KB

Open AccessArticle

A Comparative Analysis of Preservation and Revitalization Policies for Traditional Villages in China and Italy

by Yang Su, Xinyi Chen and Jose-Manuel Almodovar-Melendo

Buildings 2025, 15(19), 3515; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15193515 - 29 Sep 2025

Abstract

China and Italy, both ancient civilizations, have numerous traditional villages that bear witness to history and support the transmission of cultural heritage. However, these villages face challenges such as homogenized development, population outflow, and disruptions in cultural continuity. While both Chinese and Italian [...] Read more.

China and Italy, both ancient civilizations, have numerous traditional villages that bear witness to history and support the transmission of cultural heritage. However, these villages face challenges such as homogenized development, population outflow, and disruptions in cultural continuity. While both Chinese and Italian traditional villages have received considerable scholarly attention, their comparative study remains relatively limited, leaving the transferability of respective solutions across different legal, heritage and planning contexts to be fully explored. This study aims to adapt and transfer Italy’s contiguous protection, integrated operation, national park designation, and community partnership policies to China in order to establish a comprehensive mechanism for preservation and revitalization of traditional villages. A cross-case study of Cinque Terre (Italy) and Jiande (China), incorporating on-site mapping, governance analysis, and interviews, reveals that Italy’s integrated community-based approach markedly outperforms China’s fragmented state-led model in sustaining population, culture and tourism quality. These findings provide a globally replicable paradigm for traditional village preservation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Architectural Design, Urban Science, and Real Estate)

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18 pages, 5858 KB

Open AccessArticle

Research on Deformation Behavior and Mechanisms of Concrete Under Hygrothermal Coupling Effects

by Mingyu Li, Chunxiao Zhang, Aiguo Dang, Xiang He, Jingbiao Liu and Xiaonan Liu

Buildings 2025, 15(19), 3514; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15193514 - 29 Sep 2025

Abstract

This study elucidated the evolution and catastrophic failure mechanisms of concrete’s mechanical properties under high-temperature and moisture-coupled environments. Specimens underwent hygrothermal shock simulation via constant-temperature drying (100 °C/200 °C, 4 h) followed by water quenching (20 °C, 30 min). Uniaxial compression tests were [...] Read more.

This study elucidated the evolution and catastrophic failure mechanisms of concrete’s mechanical properties under high-temperature and moisture-coupled environments. Specimens underwent hygrothermal shock simulation via constant-temperature drying (100 °C/200 °C, 4 h) followed by water quenching (20 °C, 30 min). Uniaxial compression tests were performed using a uniaxial compression test machine with synchronized multi-scale damage monitoring that integrated digital image correlation (DIC), acoustic emission (AE), and infrared thermography. The results demonstrated that hygrothermal coupling reduced concrete ductility significantly, in which the peak strain decreased from 0.36% (ambient) to 0.25% for both the 100 °C and 200 °C groups, while compressive strength declined to 42.8 MPa (−2.9%) and 40.3 MPa (−8.6%), respectively, with elevated elastic modulus. DIC analysis revealed the temperature-dependent failure mode reconstruction: progressive end cracking (max strain 0.48%) at ambient temperature transitioned to coordinated dual-end cracking with jump-type damage (abrupt principal strain to 0.1%) at 100 °C and degenerated to brittle fracture oriented along a singular path (principal strain band 0.015%) at 200 °C. AE monitoring indicated drastically reduced micro-damage energy barriers at 200 °C, where cumulative energy (4000 mV·ms) plummeted to merely 2% of the ambient group (200,000 mV·ms). Infrared thermography showed that energy aggregation shifted from “centralized” (ambient) to “edge-to-center migration” (200 °C), with intensified thermal shock effects in fracture zones (ΔT ≈ −7.2 °C). The study established that hygrothermal coupling weakens the aggregate-paste interfacial transition zone (ITZ) by concentrating the strain energy along singular weak paths and inducing brittle failure mode degeneration, which thereby provides theoretical foundations for fire-resistant design and catastrophic failure warning systems in concrete structures exposed to coupled environmental stressors. Full article

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22 pages, 3051 KB

Open AccessReview

A Review of Recent Advances in MgO-Based Cementitious Composites for Green Construction: Mechanical and Durability Aspects

by Iqra, Khin Soe, Richard (Chunhui) Yang and Y. X. Zhang

Buildings 2025, 15(19), 3513; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15193513 - 29 Sep 2025

Abstract

The construction industry, as a major contributor to greenhouse gas emissions, urgently requires sustainable development solutions to achieve the Net Zero Emission Goal. Magnesium oxide (MgO)-based cementitious composites have emerged as promising alternatives due to their ability to reduce environmental impact and their [...] Read more.

The construction industry, as a major contributor to greenhouse gas emissions, urgently requires sustainable development solutions to achieve the Net Zero Emission Goal. Magnesium oxide (MgO)-based cementitious composites have emerged as promising alternatives due to their ability to reduce environmental impact and their potential to enhance structural integrity. Despite these advantages, limitations such as poor resistance to harsh environmental conditions and concerns over long-term durability continue to restrict their broader application. To better understand these strengths and limitations, this review investigates the influence of MgO; supplementary cementitious materials (SCMs) such as fly ash, silica fume, and rice husk ash. It also examines fibers, including polyethylene (PE), polypropylene (PP), polyvinyl alcohol (PVA), glass, sisal, and cellulose, and their effect on the mechanical and durability properties of MgO-based composites. Mechanical performance is assessed through compressive and tensile strength, while durability is evaluated in terms of porosity, permeability, water absorption, shrinkage (autogenous and drying), and carbonation resistance. Key challenges and future research directions to promote the use of MgO composites in sustainable construction are also identified. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Building Materials, and Repair & Renovation)

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19 pages, 3880 KB

Open AccessArticle

Microstructural Mechanisms Influencing Soil-Interface Shear Strength: A Case Study on Loess and Concrete Plate Contact

by Chengliang Ji, Wanli Xie, Qingyi Yang, Chenfei Qu, Peijun Fan, Zhiyi Wu and Kangze Yuan

Buildings 2025, 15(19), 3512; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15193512 - 29 Sep 2025

Abstract

Understanding the shear behavior of loess–concrete interfaces is essential for foundation design in collapsible loess regions, yet the pore-scale mechanisms remain unclear. This study investigates the relationship between interface shear strength and loess microstructure at different burial depths. Direct shear tests were conducted [...] Read more.

Understanding the shear behavior of loess–concrete interfaces is essential for foundation design in collapsible loess regions, yet the pore-scale mechanisms remain unclear. This study investigates the relationship between interface shear strength and loess microstructure at different burial depths. Direct shear tests were conducted on undisturbed loess samples under stress conditions simulating in situ confinement. High-resolution SEM images were analyzed via Avizo to quantify pore area ratios at multiple scales, fractal dimensions, and directional probability entropy. Pearson correlation, principal component analysis (PCA), and hierarchical cluster analysis (HCA) were employed to statistically interpret the microstructure–mechanics relationship. Results show that interface shear strength increases significantly with depth (35.2–258.4 kPa), primarily due to reduced total porosity and macropore content, increased small and micropore fractions, and enhanced isotropy of pore orientation. Fractal dimension negatively correlates with strength, indicating that compaction-induced boundary regularization enhances particle contact and shear resistance, while entropy positively correlates with strength, reflecting structural homogenization and isotropic pore orientation. PCA and HCA further confirm that small and micropores are the dominant contributors to interface resistance. This study provides a quantitative framework linking microstructural evolution to mechanical performance, offering new insights for optimizing pile–soil interface design in loess areas. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Foundation Treatment and Building Structural Performance Enhancement)

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14 pages, 3021 KB

Open AccessArticle

An Experimental Investigation into the Influence of Colored Lighting on Perceived Spatial Impressions

by Heejin Lee and Eunsil Lee

Buildings 2025, 15(19), 3511; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15193511 - 28 Sep 2025

Abstract

The present study investigates the psychological impact of lighting color on spatial impressions within indoor settings, drawing on Mehrabian and Russell’s PAD model. The purpose of this study is to explore potential variations in spatial impressions, encompassing affectivity, tranquility, and thermality, across six [...] Read more.

The present study investigates the psychological impact of lighting color on spatial impressions within indoor settings, drawing on Mehrabian and Russell’s PAD model. The purpose of this study is to explore potential variations in spatial impressions, encompassing affectivity, tranquility, and thermality, across six different lighting colors (i.e., red, green, blue, yellow, orange, and purple). A controlled laboratory experiment was conducted with 101 participants, utilizing a color-changing LED lighting fixture to expose participants to actual lighting conditions rather than simulated images. The findings revealed significant differences in spatial impressions among the six lighting colors, indicating that the choice of lighting color has an impact on how people perceive space impressions. Blue lighting elicited the most favorable affective responses, while red lighting was perceived most negatively. Although purple lighting yielded the highest tranquility mean, it was not statistically different from other cool hues and was also associated with sleepiness and dullness. By incorporating secondary colors and employing real-time lighting exposure, this study offers a novel contribution to existing research on color and lighting. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Architectural Design, Urban Science, and Real Estate)

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21 pages, 3433 KB

Open AccessArticle

One Hundred Years of V(λ): Predicting Spatial Brightness Using Vertical Illuminance Derived from Photopic Luminous Efficiency Functions

by Wangyang Song and Dorukalp Durmus

Buildings 2025, 15(19), 3510; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15193510 - 28 Sep 2025

Abstract

Many years later, as it faced the firing squad, the photopic luminous efficiency function was to remember that distant afternoon when its fathers developed it to quantify light. Drawing parallels from Gabriel García Márquez’s complex and multi-layered novel, this article details the cyclical [...] Read more.

Many years later, as it faced the firing squad, the photopic luminous efficiency function was to remember that distant afternoon when its fathers developed it to quantify light. Drawing parallels from Gabriel García Márquez’s complex and multi-layered novel, this article details the cyclical nature of a recurring topic and the repetition of events across generations. About 100 years ago, the CIE 2° standard observer (V(λ)) was developed to enable a reliable, reproducible photometric system. V(λ)-derived photometric units (e.g., illuminance) were envisioned to predict a generic “visibility” response, but today they are widely used to quantify one of the most fundamental responses to light: brightness. Despite its limitations and several proposed alternatives, the lighting industry still uses V(λ) to calculate photometric measures. This study examines the predictive capacity of V(λ) and its three alternatives (CIE V₁₀(λ), V_F(λ), V_F,10(λ)) across three CCTs (2700 K, 4000 K, 6000 K) and three illuminance (50 lx, 100 lx, 300 lx) levels in predicting spatial brightness. Alternatives outperformed V(λ) under 2700 K and 50 lx, but overall photopic luminous efficiency functions (including V(λ)) could not predict spatial brightness consistently. Future studies should investigate the performance of specialized spatial brightness metrics. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Lighting in Buildings—2nd Edition)

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25 pages, 4854 KB

Open AccessArticle

Computational Fluid Dynamics Approach to Aeroelastic Stability in Cable-Stayed Bridges

by Zouhir S. M. Louhibi, Nadji Chioukh, Sidi Mohammed Daoud, Zouaoui R. Harrat, Ehsan Harirchian and Walid Mansour

Buildings 2025, 15(19), 3509; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15193509 - 28 Sep 2025

Abstract

Long-span cable-supported bridges, such as cable-stayed and suspension bridges, are highly sensitive to wind-induced effects due to their flexibility, low damping, and relatively light weight. Aerodynamic analysis is therefore essential in their design and safety assessment. This study examines the aeroelastic stability of [...] Read more.

Long-span cable-supported bridges, such as cable-stayed and suspension bridges, are highly sensitive to wind-induced effects due to their flexibility, low damping, and relatively light weight. Aerodynamic analysis is therefore essential in their design and safety assessment. This study examines the aeroelastic stability of the Oued Dib cable-stayed bridge in Mila, Algeria, with emphasis on vortex shedding, galloping, torsional divergence, and classical flutter. A finite element modal analysis was carried out on a three-dimensional model to identify natural frequencies and mode shapes. A two-dimensional deck section was then analyzed using Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) under a steady wind flow of U = 20 m/s and varying angles of attack (AoA) from −10° to +10°. The simulations employed a RANS k-ω SST turbulence model with a wall function of Y+ = 30. The results provided detailed airflow patterns around the deck and enabled the evaluation of static aerodynamic coefficients—drag (C_D), lift (C_L), and moment (C_M)—as functions of AoA. Finally, the bridge’s aeroelastic performance was assessed against the four instabilities. The findings indicate that the Oued Dib Bridge remains stable under the design wind conditions, although fatigue due to vortex shedding requires further consideration. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Building Structures)

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25 pages, 5664 KB

Open AccessArticle

Performance Optimization of Flood Sediment Adobe Bricks Through Natural Additive Integration

by Andaman Khunaprapakorn, Rungroj Arjwech, Natthaphol Chomsaeng and Sitthiphat Eua-Apiwatch

Buildings 2025, 15(19), 3508; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15193508 - 28 Sep 2025

Abstract

This study addresses critical knowledge gaps in adobe construction by systematically investigating soil mineralogy–additive effectiveness relationships and developing dual-additive optimization strategies for flood sediment valorization. Four Thai soil types—Nakhon Pathom (NPT), Sisaket (SSK), Uttaradit (UTT), and September 2024 Chiang Rai flood sediment (CRI)—were [...] Read more.

This study addresses critical knowledge gaps in adobe construction by systematically investigating soil mineralogy–additive effectiveness relationships and developing dual-additive optimization strategies for flood sediment valorization. Four Thai soil types—Nakhon Pathom (NPT), Sisaket (SSK), Uttaradit (UTT), and September 2024 Chiang Rai flood sediment (CRI)—were characterized using XRD and EDS analyses. Twelve adobe formulations incorporating rice husk (3.45%) and graduated bentonite concentrations (5–15%) were evaluated for mechanical and thermal properties. UTT soil with balanced mineralogy (42.1% SiO₂, 40.4% Al₂O₃) achieved optimal mechanical performance (3.12 ± 0.11 MPa compressive strength), while CRI demonstrated superior thermal insulation (0.200 ± 0.009 W/m·K). Rice husk systematically enhanced compressive strength across all soils (13.6–82.5% improvement) while reducing thermal conductivity to 0.211–0.278 W/m·K. Dual-additive optimization of CRI enabled application-specific customization: rice husk alone maximized strength (1.34 ± 0.09 MPa), while bentonite combinations optimized thermal performance (0.199 ± 0.015 W/m·K). Microstructural analysis revealed distinct reinforcement mechanisms and matrix densification effects. This research establishes predictive frameworks for material selection based on soil composition, demonstrates viable flood waste valorization pathways, and supports Thailand’s Bio-Circular-Green economic framework through sustainable construction material development. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Building Materials, and Repair & Renovation)

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32 pages, 20144 KB

Open AccessArticle

Spatiotemporal Distribution and Driving Factors of Historic and Cultural Villages in China

by Shuna Jiang, Naigao Lu, Zhongqian Zhang, Huanli Pan, Guoyang Lu and Shuangqing Sheng

Buildings 2025, 15(19), 3507; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15193507 - 28 Sep 2025

Abstract

Historic and cultural villages in China are increasingly challenged by rapid urbanization, uneven commercial development, and fragmented preservation mechanisms. Understanding their spatiotemporal distribution and the factors shaping it is crucial for advancing the integrated development of cultural heritage conservation, ecological sustainability, and socio-economic [...] Read more.

Historic and cultural villages in China are increasingly challenged by rapid urbanization, uneven commercial development, and fragmented preservation mechanisms. Understanding their spatiotemporal distribution and the factors shaping it is crucial for advancing the integrated development of cultural heritage conservation, ecological sustainability, and socio-economic growth. This study examines 487 historic and cultural villages using the nearest neighbor index (NNI) and kernel density analyses to reveal spatial differentiation patterns. Vector buffer analysis and the geographic detector method were further employed to identify the key drivers of village distribution. The results indicate that: (1) historic and cultural villages exhibit a distinctly clustered spatial pattern, characterized by “more in the southeast, fewer in the northwest; more in the northeast, fewer in the southwest” (NNI = 0.44, Z = –23.52, p = 0.00); (2) provincial-level spatial density demonstrates clear stratification, with high-density clusters concentrated in the Yangtze River Delta, southern Anhui, the Fujian–Zhejiang–Jiangxi junction, and along the Yellow River in Shanxi–Shaanxi–Henan. From the fifth to seventh designation batches, kernel density peaks (maximum ~0.11 × 10⁻²) increased significantly, reflecting stronger spatial clustering; and (3) the spatial distribution of villages is jointly shaped by natural geography, socio-economic conditions, transportation infrastructure, visitor markets, and tourism resources. Among these, nighttime light intensity was identified as the most influential individual factor (q = 0.6132), while the combination of slope aspect and per capita disposable income emerged as the dominant factor pair (q = 0.966). Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Challenges in Digital City Planning)

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38 pages, 4051 KB

Open AccessArticle

Cross-Cultural Perceptual Differences in the Symbolic Meanings of Chinese Architectural Heritage

by Guoliang Shao, Jinhe Zhang, Lingfeng Bu and Jingwei Wang

Buildings 2025, 15(19), 3506; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15193506 - 28 Sep 2025

Abstract

Architectural heritage, as a highly symbolized medium of cultural expression, plays a vital role in transmitting collective memory and shaping intercultural tourism experiences. Yet, how visitors from diverse cultural backgrounds perceive and emotionally respond to Chinese architectural symbols remains insufficiently understood. This study [...] Read more.

Architectural heritage, as a highly symbolized medium of cultural expression, plays a vital role in transmitting collective memory and shaping intercultural tourism experiences. Yet, how visitors from diverse cultural backgrounds perceive and emotionally respond to Chinese architectural symbols remains insufficiently understood. This study addresses this gap by integrating architectural semiotics with cross-cultural psychology to examine perceptual differences across three visitor groups—Mainland China and Hong Kong/Macau/Taiwan (C), East and Southeast Asia (A), and Europe/North America (UA)—at eleven representative Chinese heritage sites. Drawing on 235 in-depth interviews and 1500 online reviews, a mixed-methods design was employed, combining semantic network analysis, grounded theory coding, and affective clustering. The findings reveal that memory structures and cultural contexts shape symbolic perception, that cultural dimensions and affective orientations drive divergent emotional responses, and that interpretive pathways of architectural symbols vary systematically across groups. Specifically, Group C emphasizes collective memory and identity, and Group A engages through structural analogies and regional resonance, while Group UA favors aesthetic form and immersive experiences. These insights inform culturally adaptive strategies for heritage presentation, including memory-anchored curation, comparative cross-regional interpretation, and immersive digital storytelling. By advancing a micro-level model of “architectural symbol–perceptual theme–emotional response–perceptual mechanism,” this research not only enriches theoretical debates on cross-cultural heritage perception but also offers practical guidance for inclusive and resonant heritage interpretation in a global tourism context. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Research on Cultural Heritage—2nd Edition)

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22 pages, 1096 KB

Open AccessArticle

Analyzing Time and Cost Deviations in Educational Infrastructure Projects: A Data-Driven Approach Using Colombia’s Public Data Platform

by Adriana Gómez-Cabrera, Luis Carlos León, María Lucrecia Lopez and Andrés Torres

Buildings 2025, 15(19), 3505; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15193505 - 28 Sep 2025

Abstract

This study aims to identify the key factors contributing to time and cost deviations in educational infrastructure projects in Colombia, using a data-driven approach based on open government datasets. By examining 175 procurement records from Colombia’s public data platform, the research seeks to [...] Read more.

This study aims to identify the key factors contributing to time and cost deviations in educational infrastructure projects in Colombia, using a data-driven approach based on open government datasets. By examining 175 procurement records from Colombia’s public data platform, the research seeks to uncover patterns and variables that influence project performance, offering a transparent alternative to traditional expert-based assessments. The results show an average time deviation of 77.73% and a cost deviation of 22.17%, with a significant correlation between both metrics. Project type, contract value, and process type were significant for both deviations. Additional cost-related factors included initial duration, award growth, and number of bidders, while time deviations were influenced by project intensity and time suspended. These findings highlight the need for integrated planning and procurement strategies to improve efficiency in public infrastructure delivery. Although the methodology ensures robustness, limitations include the focus on finalized educational projects and the exclusion of qualitative factors such as stakeholder behavior and site-specific challenges. The insights are valuable for policymakers, public sector managers, and researchers seeking to enhance infrastructure outcomes through evidence-based decision-making and better resource allocation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Application of Innovative Technologies in Construction Project Management)

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17 pages, 4387 KB

Open AccessArticle

Sensitivity Analysis of the Uncertainty of the Heat-Flux Method for In-Situ Thermal Conductance Assessment in Glazed Façades

by Riccardo Gazzin, Giuseppe De Michele, Giovanni Pernigotto, Andrea Gasparella and Roberto Garay-Martinez

Buildings 2025, 15(19), 3504; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15193504 - 28 Sep 2025

Abstract

The discrepancy between design-stage predictions and actual building energy performance, known as the “performance gap,” poses a barrier to achieving energy efficiency goals, especially in modern buildings with high-performance envelopes and complex façades. Characterization of façade elements, both on site and in laboratory [...] Read more.

The discrepancy between design-stage predictions and actual building energy performance, known as the “performance gap,” poses a barrier to achieving energy efficiency goals, especially in modern buildings with high-performance envelopes and complex façades. Characterization of façade elements, both on site and in laboratory facilities, can help ensure envelope quality and mitigate this gap. Although glazed envelopes are increasingly used in contemporary architecture, current regulations lack standardized procedures for experimental heat transfer assessment in buildings. This paper explores how existing standards for heat flux measurements in opaque envelopes could be adapted to transparent façades. A detailed uncertainty analysis is provided to define measurement conditions that ensure accurate conductance results. A sensitivity analysis—based on both analytical error propagation and Monte Carlo simulations—identifies minimum sensor precision, temperature gradients, and test durations needed for reliable in situ assessments. Results show that uncertainty is mainly driven by small temperature gradients and systematic sensor errors. Measurements taken over six hours with a minimum 5 K gradient yield acceptable uncertainty. The proposed framework supports the development of rigorous experimental protocols for assessing the conductance of transparent façade elements, accounting for real-world conditions and measurement limitations. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Research on Indoor Built Environments and Energy Performance)

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20 pages, 2198 KB

Open AccessArticle

High-Frequency Refined Mamba with Snake Perception Attention for More Accurate Crack Segmentation

by Haibo Li, Lingkun Chen and Tao Wang

Buildings 2025, 15(19), 3503; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15193503 - 28 Sep 2025

Abstract

Cracks are vital warning signs to reflect the structural deterioration in concrete constructions and buildings. However, their diverse and complex morphologies make accurate segmentation challenging. Deep learning-based methods effectively alleviate the low accuracy of traditional methods, while they are limited by the receptive [...] Read more.

Cracks are vital warning signs to reflect the structural deterioration in concrete constructions and buildings. However, their diverse and complex morphologies make accurate segmentation challenging. Deep learning-based methods effectively alleviate the low accuracy of traditional methods, while they are limited by the receptive field and computational efficiency, resulting in suboptimal performance. To address this challenging problem, we propose a novel framework termed High-frequency Refined Mamba with Snake Perception Attention module (HFR-Mamba) for more accurate crack segmentation. HFR-Mamba effectively refines Mamba’s global dependency modeling by extracting frequency domain features and the attention mechanism. Specifically, HFR-Mamba consists of the High-frequency Refined Mamba encoder, the Snake Perception Attention (SPA) module, and the Multi-scale Feature Fusion decoder. The encoder uses Discrete Wavelet Transform (DWT) to extract high-frequency texture features and utilizes the Refined Visual State Space (RVSS) module to fuse spatial features and high-frequency components, which effectively refines the global modeling process of Mamba. The SPA module integrates snake convolutions with different directions to filter background noise from the encoder and highlight cracks for the decoder. For the decoder, it adopts a multi-scale feature fusion strategy and a strongly supervised approach to enhance decoding performance. Extensive experiments show HFR-Mamba achieves state-of-the-art performance in IoU, DSC, Recall, Accuracy, and Precision indicators with fewer parameters, validating its effectiveness in crack segmentation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Intelligence and Automation in Construction Industry)

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29 pages, 72091 KB

Open AccessArticle

Health Assessment of Historic Blocks Based on Multi-Source Data: A Case Study of the Blocks Along Ciqi Street, Yongqing Street, and Yongtai Street in Shedian Town, Nanyang City, China

by Bingtai Xing, Renjing Zhao, Lujia Zhang and Hongyi Lyu

Buildings 2025, 15(19), 3502; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15193502 - 28 Sep 2025

Abstract

In the context of building healthy cities and enhancing the quality of historic blocks, assessing their health levels is of critical importance. However, research on health assessments of historic blocks remains limited, and existing evaluation frameworks often struggle to balance comprehensiveness with contextual [...] Read more.

In the context of building healthy cities and enhancing the quality of historic blocks, assessing their health levels is of critical importance. However, research on health assessments of historic blocks remains limited, and existing evaluation frameworks often struggle to balance comprehensiveness with contextual specificity. Using the blocks along Ciqi Street, Yongqing Street, and Yongtai Street in Shedian Town, Nanyang City, as a case study, this study develops a health assessment system comprising five primary indicators, including block safety, block comfort, block ecological nature, block convenience, and block cultural nature, along with eleven secondary indicators and seventeen tertiary indicators. Based on SHP data, street view imagery, meteorological data, DSM data, and other relevant datasets and employing multiple analytical methods, including ArcGIS, semantic segmentation, and Grasshopper, a health assessment of the target blocks is conducted. The results indicate that the target blocks face significant safety issues, with health challenges primarily associated with their internal built environments. Finally, the study proposes three measures for quality improvement, providing references for related research and the renewal of historic blocks. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Multi-Dimensional Organic Conservation of Historical Neighborhood Buildings in the Context of Sustainable Urban Renewal—2nd Edition)

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29 pages, 7711 KB

Open AccessArticle

Fundamentals of Controlled Demolition in Structures: Real-Life Applications, Discrete Element Methods, Monitoring, and Artificial Intelligence-Based Research Directions

by Julide Yuzbasi

Buildings 2025, 15(19), 3501; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15193501 - 28 Sep 2025

Abstract

Controlled demolition is a critical engineering practice that enables the safe and efficient dismantling of structures while minimizing risks to the surrounding environment. This study presents, for the first time, a detailed, structured framework for understanding the fundamental principles of controlled demolition by [...] Read more.

Controlled demolition is a critical engineering practice that enables the safe and efficient dismantling of structures while minimizing risks to the surrounding environment. This study presents, for the first time, a detailed, structured framework for understanding the fundamental principles of controlled demolition by outlining key procedures, methodologies, and directions for future research. Through original, carefully designed charts and full-scale numerical simulations, including two 23-story building scenarios with different delay and blasting sequences, this paper provides real-life insights into the effects of floor-to-floor versus axis-by-axis delays on structural collapse behavior, debris spread, and toppling control. Beyond traditional techniques, this study explores how emerging technologies, such as real-time structural monitoring via object tracking, LiDAR scanning, and Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV)-based inspections, can be further advanced through the integration of artificial intelligence (AI). The potential Deep learning (DL) and Machine learning (ML)-based applications of tools like Convolutional Neural Network (CNN)-based digital twins, YOLO object detection, and XGBoost classifiers are highlighted as promising avenues for future research. These technologies could support real-time decision-making, automation, and risk assessment in demolition scenarios. Furthermore, vision-language models such as SAM and Grounding DINO are discussed as enabling technologies for real-time risk assessment, anomaly detection, and adaptive control. By sharing insights from full-scale observations and proposing a forward-looking analytical framework, this work lays a foundation for intelligent and resilient demolition practices. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Building Structures)

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18 pages, 1395 KB

Open AccessArticle

Comparative Evaluation of Cool Roofs and Photovoltaic Roofs in Sustainable Buildings Within the Scope of the 3-E Static Payback Period Framework

by Shanguo Zhao, Xiaosong Zhang and Xing Jin

Buildings 2025, 15(19), 3500; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15193500 - 28 Sep 2025

Abstract

Building envelopes play a pivotal role in influencing building energy consumption. Among its components, the roof, as a critical element, directly absorbs solar radiation and serves as a primary medium for external heat exchange. Its thermal performance significantly impacts the overall energy consumption [...] Read more.

Building envelopes play a pivotal role in influencing building energy consumption. Among its components, the roof, as a critical element, directly absorbs solar radiation and serves as a primary medium for external heat exchange. Its thermal performance significantly impacts the overall energy consumption of buildings. This study focuses on cool roofs as the research subject to investigate their thermal performance and its effects on building energy consumption. Drawing on the principles of life cycle assessment (LCA), a novel concept of environmental payback period is introduced. By comparing cool roofs with photovoltaic roofs, this research employs energy consumption simulation and life cycle assessment to evaluate their performance across three dimensions: economic, energy, and environmental impacts. A comprehensive 3-E (Economic, Energy, Environmental) static payback period theoretical framework based on LCA is established. Within this framework, the concepts of economic static payback period, energy static payback period, and environmental static payback period are explicitly defined, and corresponding calculation formulas are provided. A case study in Nanjing is conducted to validate the proposed framework. The results indicate that the economic payback periods for cool roofs and photovoltaic roofs are 1.75 years and 10.90 years, respectively; the energy payback periods are 13.6 years and 43.7 years, respectively; and the environmental payback periods are 2.2 years and 7.6 years, respectively. In terms of energy savings, photovoltaic roofs outperform cool roofs significantly, with an annual energy saving of 139 kWh/m² for photovoltaic roofs compared to 6.5 kWh/m² for cool roofs. However, cool roofs demonstrate clear advantages in the comparison of payback periods. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Research on Indoor Air Environment and Energy Conservation)

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24 pages, 8957 KB

Open AccessArticle

Inversion of Physical and Mechanical Parameters of Surrounding Rock Mass in Foundation Pits Using a PSO-BP Neural Network

by Gang Li, Wei Xiao, Yanlin Liang, Qiyin Gu, Junxin Jiang, Wei Meng and Yuanfu Zhou

Buildings 2025, 15(19), 3499; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15193499 - 28 Sep 2025

Abstract

In foundation pit engineering, precise determination of the physical–mechanical parameters of the surrounding rock is essential for reliable simulation of rock deformation and anchor cable forces. A foundation pit engineering project in Shapingba District, Chongqing, was selected as a case study. A numerical [...] Read more.

In foundation pit engineering, precise determination of the physical–mechanical parameters of the surrounding rock is essential for reliable simulation of rock deformation and anchor cable forces. A foundation pit engineering project in Shapingba District, Chongqing, was selected as a case study. A numerical model was developed using FLAC3D, and 64 working conditions were designed via orthogonal experiments to serve as training samples. Global optimization inversion of the samples was performed using a BP neural network enhanced by particle swarm optimization. Using selected monitoring data of surrounding rock displacement and anchor cable forces, inversion was conducted to determine the physical–mechanical parameters of the foundation pit surrounding rock, and the FLAC3D model inputs were subsequently updated. Finally, simulated results were validated against field measurements. The maximum relative error of surrounding rock displacement reached 8%, with only 3% at the pit center. The largest settlement occurred in the eastern section, where the relative error was 5%. For anchor cable forces, the maximum relative error was 7.9%. This study employed a PSO-BP neural network to invert the physical–mechanical parameters of the foundation pit surrounding rock and introduced a two-stage validation using measured displacements and anchor cable forces. The approach enhances inversion accuracy and provides a practical reference for similar foundation pit engineering applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Structural Safety and Stability of Buildings: Novel Methods, Materials, and Measurements—2nd Edition)

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25 pages, 11496 KB

Open AccessArticle

Axial Force Analysis and Geometric Nonlinear Beam-Spring Finite Element Calculation of Micro Anti-Slide Piles

by Guoping Lei, Dongmei Yuan, Zexiong Wu and Feifan Liu

Buildings 2025, 15(19), 3498; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15193498 - 28 Sep 2025

Abstract

This study investigates the development of axial force in micro anti-slide piles under soil movement during slope stabilization. Axial force arises from two primary mechanisms: axial soil displacement (

z_{s}

) and pile kinematics. The former plays a dominant role, producing either [...] Read more.

This study investigates the development of axial force in micro anti-slide piles under soil movement during slope stabilization. Axial force arises from two primary mechanisms: axial soil displacement (

z_{s}

) and pile kinematics. The former plays a dominant role, producing either tensile or compressive axial force depending on the direction of

z_{s}

, while the kinematically induced component remains consistently tensile. A sliding angle of

α = 5 °

represents an approximate transition point where these two effects balance each other. Furthermore, the two mechanisms exhibit distinct mobilization behaviors:

z_{s}

-induced axial force mobilizes earlier than both bending moment and shear force, whereas kinematically induced axial force mobilizes significantly later. The study reveals two distinct pile–soil interaction mechanisms depending on proximity to the slip surface: away from the slip surface, axial soil resistance is governed by rigid cross-section translation, whereas near the slip surface, rotation-dominated displacement accompanied by soil–pile separation introduces significant complexity in predicting both the magnitude and direction of axial friction. A hyperbolic formulation was adopted to model both the lateral soil resistance relative to lateral pile–soil displacement (p-y behavior) and the axial frictional resistance relative to axial pile–soil displacement (t-z behavior). Soil resistance equations were derived to explicitly incorporate the effects of cross-sectional rotation and pile–soil separation. A novel beam-spring finite element method (BSFEM) that incorporates both geometric and material nonlinearities of the pile behavior was developed, using a soil displacement-driven solution algorithm. Validation against both numerical simulations and field monitoring data from an engineering application demonstrates the model’s effectiveness in capturing the distribution and evolution of axial deformation and axial force in micropiles under varying soil movement conditions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Geopolymers and Low-Carbon Cementitious Materials for High-Performance Concrete)

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27 pages, 11865 KB

Open AccessArticle

Foundation-Specific Hybrid Models for Expansive Soil Deformation Prediction and Early Warning

by Teerapun Saeheaw

Buildings 2025, 15(19), 3497; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15193497 - 28 Sep 2025

Abstract

Foundation deformation prediction on expansive soils involves complex soil-structure interactions and environmental variability. This study develops foundation-specific hybrid modeling approaches for temporal deformation prediction using 974 days of monitoring data from four foundations on medium-expansive soil. Four hybrid architectures were evaluated—Residual-Clustering Hybrid, Elastic [...] Read more.

Foundation deformation prediction on expansive soils involves complex soil-structure interactions and environmental variability. This study develops foundation-specific hybrid modeling approaches for temporal deformation prediction using 974 days of monitoring data from four foundations on medium-expansive soil. Four hybrid architectures were evaluated—Residual-Clustering Hybrid, Elastic Net Fusion, Residual Correction, and Enhanced Robust Huber—optimized through Ridge regression-based feature selection and validated against seven baseline methods. Systematic feature engineering with optimal selection identified foundation-specific complexity requirements. Statistical validation employed bootstrap resampling, temporal cross-validation, and Bonferroni correction for multiple comparisons. Results demonstrated foundation-specific effectiveness with distinct hybrid model performance: Residual-Clustering Hybrid achieved optimal performance for Foundation F1 (R² = 0.945), Elastic Net Fusion performed best for Foundation F2 (R² = 0.947), Residual Correction excelled for Foundation F3 (R² = 0.963), and Enhanced Robust Huber showed strongest results for Foundation F4 (R² = 0.881). Statistical significance was achieved in 35.7% of comparisons with effect sizes of Cohen’s d = 0.259–1.805. Time series forecasting achieved R² = 0.881–0.963 with uncertainty intervals of ±0.654–0.977 mm. Feature analysis revealed temporal variables as primary predictors, while domain-specific features provided complementary contributions. The early warning system achieved F1-scores of 0.900–0.982 using statistically derived thresholds. Foundation deformation processes exhibit strong autoregressive characteristics, providing enhanced prediction accuracy and quantified uncertainty bounds for operational infrastructure monitoring. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Building Structures)

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25 pages, 1278 KB

Open AccessReview

Eye-Tracking Advancements in Architecture: A Review of Recent Studies

by Mário Bruno Cruz, Francisco Rebelo and Jorge Cruz Pinto

Buildings 2025, 15(19), 3496; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15193496 - 28 Sep 2025

Abstract

This Scoping Review (ScR) synthesizes advances in architectural eye-tracking (ET) research published between 2010 and 2024. Drawing on 75 peer-reviewed studies that met clear inclusion criteria, it monitors the field’s rapid expansion, from only 20 experiments before 2018, to more than 45 new [...] Read more.

This Scoping Review (ScR) synthesizes advances in architectural eye-tracking (ET) research published between 2010 and 2024. Drawing on 75 peer-reviewed studies that met clear inclusion criteria, it monitors the field’s rapid expansion, from only 20 experiments before 2018, to more than 45 new investigations in the three years thereafter, situating these developments within the longer historical evolution of ET hardware and analytical paradigms. The review maps 13 recurrent areas of application, focusing on design evaluation, wayfinding and spatial navigation, end-user experience, and architectural education. Across these domains, ET reliably reveals where occupants focus, for how long, and in what sequence, providing objective evidence that complements designer intuition and conventional post-occupancy surveys. Experts and novices might display distinct gaze signatures; for example, architects spend longer fixating on contextual and structural cues, whereas lay users dwell on decorative details, highlighting possible pedagogical opportunities. Despite these benefits, persistent challenges include data loss in dynamic or outdoor settings, calibration drift, single-user hardware constraints, and the need to triangulate gaze metrics with cognitive or affective measures. Future research directions emphasize integrating ET with virtual or augmented reality (VR) (AR) to validate design interactively, improving mobile tracking accuracy, and establishing shared datasets to enable replication and meta-analysis. Overall, the study demonstrates that ET is maturing into an indispensable, evidence-based lens for creating more intuitive, legible, and human-centered architecture. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Emerging Trends in Architecture, Urbanization, and Design)

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29 pages, 6194 KB

Open AccessArticle

Study on the Evolution Mechanism of Cultural Landscapes Based on the Analysis of Historical Events—A Case Study of Gubeikou, Beijing

by Ding He, Hanghui Dong, Shihao Li and Minmin Fang

Buildings 2025, 15(19), 3495; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15193495 - 28 Sep 2025

Abstract

The cultural landscape of Gubeikou, with distinct historical stratification and event-relatedness, bears unique value. Against the backdrop of increasingly prominent themes of cultural heritage development and transformation, research on Gubeikou’s cultural landscapes remains fragmented and lacking in depth. This research explores its evolution [...] Read more.

The cultural landscape of Gubeikou, with distinct historical stratification and event-relatedness, bears unique value. Against the backdrop of increasingly prominent themes of cultural heritage development and transformation, research on Gubeikou’s cultural landscapes remains fragmented and lacking in depth. This research explores its evolution mechanism via historical events to fill gaps. This study takes Gubeikou Town as the research object, applies the text analysis method to sort and categorize 302 historical events, summarizes 12 event types, identifies 19 landscape elements, and constructs a data matrix based on co-occurrence frequencies. It performs clustering analysis on these using Principal Component Analysis (PCA) and Agglomerative Hierarchical Clustering (AHC), while integrating historical and geographical data. Findings: (1) The landscape evolution of Gubeikou can be divided into four main stages: the military embryonic period, the functional expansion period, the system maturity period, and the multi-element integration period. (2) The dynamic evolutionary trajectory of the correlation between its landscapes and events shows that the core factors affecting the evolution of cultural landscapes in each period not only maintain the dominance of military elements throughout the evolutionary process but also integrate diverse elements like economy, culture, and folk customs with social development, presenting the characteristics of composite evolution. (3) The landscape evolution is driven by the “primary–secondary synergy” dynamic structure composed of four types of activities: military–political, transportation, production–trade, and construction. It is the product of the coupling effect of political goals, social operation, and geographical conditions. This study provides a basis for the sustainable protection and utilization of Gubeikou, and also offers a reference for other regions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Research on Cultural Heritage—2nd Edition)

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16 pages, 4233 KB

Open AccessArticle

Theoretical Calculation Modeling of Thermal Conductivity of Geopolymer Foam Concrete in Building Structures Based on Image Recognition

by Yanqing Xu, Wenwen Chen, Jie Li, Qun Xie, Mingqiang Lin, Haibo Fang, Zhihao Du and Liqiang Jiang

Buildings 2025, 15(19), 3494; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15193494 - 28 Sep 2025

Abstract

A novel thermal conductivity prediction model was developed to address the complex influence of pore structure in porous materials. This model incorporates pore size (d) and a pore distribution parameter (t) to calculate the material’s thermal conductivity. To validate the model’s accuracy, geopolymer [...] Read more.

A novel thermal conductivity prediction model was developed to address the complex influence of pore structure in porous materials. This model incorporates pore size (d) and a pore distribution parameter (t) to calculate the material’s thermal conductivity. To validate the model’s accuracy, geopolymer foamed concrete (GFC) samples with varying pore structures were fabricated. These utilized ground granulated blast furnace slag (GGBS) as the precursor, a mixed solution of sodium hydroxide (NaOH) and sodium silicate as the alkaline activator, and sodium stearate (NaSt), hydroxypropyl methylcellulose (HPMC), and sodium carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC-Na) as foam stabilizers. Conventional pore size characterization techniques exhibit limitations; consequently, this research implements a high-fidelity machine vision-driven image analysis methodology. Pore size measurement is achieved through a combined technical approach involving equivalent diameter modeling and morphological optimization. The feasibility of the proposed theory is validated by our experimental data and data from previous literature, with the error between experimental and theoretical values maintained within 5%. The value of t increases with increasing porosity and increasing disorder in pore distribution. Based on the experimental data obtained in this study and the research data from previous scholars’ studies, the t value for porous materials can be categorized according to porosity: when porosity is approximately 30%, t ≈ 0.9; when porosity is 55~65%, t ranges from 1.2 to 1.3; and when porosity is approximately 80%, t ranges from 1.9 to 2.2. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances Testing and Computation Methods for Disaster Mitigation of Engineering Structures—2nd Edition)

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