Buildings

25 pages, 3171 KB

Open AccessArticle

Urban Metro System Network Resilience Under Waterlogging Disturbance: Connectivity-Based Measurement and Enhancement

by Xiaohua Yang, Xiaer Xiahou, Kang Li and Qiming Li

Buildings 2025, 15(18), 3432; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15183432 - 22 Sep 2025

Viewed by 470

Urban metro systems (UMSs) primarily consist of underground structures and are therefore highly susceptible to disasters, such as rainstorms and waterlogging. The damages caused by such events are often substantial and difficult to recover from, highlighting the urgent need to enhance the resilience [...] Read more.

Urban metro systems (UMSs) primarily consist of underground structures and are therefore highly susceptible to disasters, such as rainstorms and waterlogging. The damages caused by such events are often substantial and difficult to recover from, highlighting the urgent need to enhance the resilience of metro networks against waterlogging. Based on the principles of urban hydrology, this paper constructs scenarios to analyze the risk of waterlogging under varying rainstorm recurrence intervals and intensities. The ArcGIS geographic information system was employed to improve the existing passive inundation algorithm, enabling more accurate identification of flood-prone areas during heavy rainfall, which supports the topological modeling of UMSs. Structural connectivity was used as an external indicator of network resilience, and tools such as Gephi and NetworkX were applied to evaluate network performance. Using the Nanjing Metro as a case study, the resilience of the UMS under different risk scenarios was assessed by analyzing the impact of waterlogging events. Subsequently, recovery sequences following disruptions were prioritized to optimize post-disaster restoration, and targeted strategies for improving network resilience were proposed. The calculation results indicate that the overall resilience of the Nanjing UMS network is at a relatively high level. When connectivity is used as the performance indicator, the operating network resilience value is between 0.78 and 0.952, while the planned network resilience value is between 0.887 and 0.939. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Challenges in Implementing Emerging Technologies in the Building Construction Industry)

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25 pages, 3707 KB

Open AccessReview

Research Review of Reaction Mechanism and Mechanical Properties of Chemically Solidified Silt

by Zhuojun Xu, Xiaolong Xie, Min He, Zhengdong Luo, Jingjing Wu, Jia Bin, Liuyiyi Yang and Benben Zhang

Buildings 2025, 15(18), 3431; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15183431 - 22 Sep 2025

Viewed by 486

Abstract

Dredged silt, characterized by high moisture content, low shear strength, and poor permeability, presents significant challenges for direct engineering application, leading to excessive land occupation and unsustainable resource management. To address these issues, solidification-lightweight composite technology has emerged as a promising approach to [...] Read more.

Dredged silt, characterized by high moisture content, low shear strength, and poor permeability, presents significant challenges for direct engineering application, leading to excessive land occupation and unsustainable resource management. To address these issues, solidification-lightweight composite technology has emerged as a promising approach to transform dredged silt into sustainable geo-materials. This review systematically evaluates international research progress on silt solidification, focusing on (1) the chemical reaction mechanisms of varied solidification agents, (2) the quantitative effects of key factors (e.g., agent dosage, curing time, and organic content) on the mechanical properties (unconfined compressive strength and shear strength) of treated silt, and (3) a critical discussion on technological limitations and future research directions. The findings provide insights for optimizing treatment protocols and advancing large-scale applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Research on Structural Analysis and Design of Civil Structures)

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26 pages, 8521 KB

Open AccessArticle

Experimental Investigation of the Impact of Drip Irrigation on the Cooling Potential of Extensive Green Roofs

by Marek Chabada and Peter Juras

Buildings 2025, 15(18), 3430; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15183430 - 22 Sep 2025

Viewed by 265

Abstract

Extensive green roofs (EGRs) are recognized as a promising passive cooling strategy due to their low areal mass, yet their thermal performance is strongly influenced by water availability. While prior studies have focused primarily on continuous irrigation or small-scale modules, the response of [...] Read more.

Extensive green roofs (EGRs) are recognized as a promising passive cooling strategy due to their low areal mass, yet their thermal performance is strongly influenced by water availability. While prior studies have focused primarily on continuous irrigation or small-scale modules, the response of EGRs to temporary irrigation outages remains underexplored. This study presents a full-scale experimental investigation on an industrial roof segment in Dubnica nad Váhom, Slovakia, conducted during summer 2024. The thermal behavior of an EGR was compared to a conventional reflective flat roof (RR) and a roof with a hydroaccumulative layer covered with photovoltaic panels (PV). The experiment analyzed an unplanned irrigation interruption and the subsequent recovery, selecting representative three-day intervals from each phase. During non-irrigated periods under peak solar radiation, evapotranspiration (ET) was minimal, resulting in increased heat flux into the interior. After irrigation resumed, ET accounted for nearly 70% of net solar radiation, reducing interior heat flux to 32% of the non-irrigated value. Heat gain reductions between irrigated and non-irrigated days were 1% for RR, 38% for PV, and 68% for EGR, correlating with energy consumed for ET. These results highlight that active irrigation substantially enhances the cooling performance of EGRs, demonstrating their potential as an effective adaptation measure for buildings under extreme summer conditions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Building Energy, Physics, Environment, and Systems)

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23 pages, 3666 KB

Open AccessArticle

Electromigration of Chloride Ions in Cementitious Material: Extension of Nernst–Planck Theory

by Xingji Zhu, Yujie Hao, Jie Wang and Changrong Xiao

Buildings 2025, 15(18), 3429; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15183429 - 22 Sep 2025

Viewed by 393

Abstract

The transport of chloride ions in concrete is often affected by electric fields, and its concentration distribution is generally evaluated using the Nernst–Planck equation. The Nernst–Planck theory can only effectively predict the mass electromigration in ideal porous media. However, under an electric field, [...] Read more.

The transport of chloride ions in concrete is often affected by electric fields, and its concentration distribution is generally evaluated using the Nernst–Planck equation. The Nernst–Planck theory can only effectively predict the mass electromigration in ideal porous media. However, under an electric field, cementitious materials still have a certain binding ability to chloride ions. This causes the transport model to have significant prediction errors, and the specific value of the electromigration coefficient cannot be accurately measured. This article systematically investigated the transfer rate of chloride ions in cementitious material under different current densities. An analytical solution of the Nernst–Planck equation containing an independent electromigration coefficient was presented, and its value was quantitatively measured and discussed. The results indicated that the relationship between the electromigration and the apparent diffusion coefficient of chloride ions needs to be fitted in segments corresponding to various electric voltage intensities; but the electromigration coefficient shows a highly linear relationship with the pure effective diffusion coefficient. This work can provide assistance and valuable data support for the evaluation of mass transport in non-ideal porous media, such as cementitious materials, using the Nernst–Planck theory. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Building Materials, and Repair & Renovation)

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18 pages, 4971 KB

Open AccessArticle

Effect of Metakaolin Content on the Deterioration Resistance of Concrete Made with Recycled Fiber-Reinforced Tailings Aggregate Under Freeze–Thaw Cycles and Sulfate Freeze–Thaw Cycles

by Fan Xu, Zhijun Li, Honghao Ying and Bin Du

Buildings 2025, 15(18), 3428; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15183428 - 22 Sep 2025

Viewed by 511

Abstract

To improve the mechanical properties and durability of concrete made with recycled fiber-reinforced tailings aggregate, the influence of metakaolin (MK) content on its properties was studied. Freeze–thaw cycle tests and sulfate freeze–thaw cycle tests were performed. Moreover, the service life of concrete under [...] Read more.

To improve the mechanical properties and durability of concrete made with recycled fiber-reinforced tailings aggregate, the influence of metakaolin (MK) content on its properties was studied. Freeze–thaw cycle tests and sulfate freeze–thaw cycle tests were performed. Moreover, the service life of concrete under freeze–thaw cycles was predicted using the grey system theory. The findings showed that even a small quantity of MK can significantly enhance the compressive strength of concrete, with the highest strength observed at 10% MK content. Concrete’s ability to withstand freeze–thaw and sulfate freeze–thaw conditions was improved by MK, with effectiveness increasing alongside MK content. The grey system theory effectively predicts the relative compressive strength of concrete in freeze–thaw environments. The prediction results demonstrated that MK significantly extends the service life of concrete. This research investigates the properties of concrete made from MK and industrial waste and provides a theoretical basis for engineering applications in cold climates, saline soils, and marine areas in Northwest China. The findings provide a reference for promoting a circular economy and environmental protection. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Research on Durability, Resilience and Stability of Building Structures)

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22 pages, 3974 KB

Open AccessArticle

Cognition–Paradigm Misalignment in Heritage Conservation: Applying a Correspondence Framework to Traditional Chinese Villages

by Xiaofeng Shi, Beau B. Beza, Chunlu Liu and Binglu Wu

Buildings 2025, 15(18), 3427; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15183427 - 22 Sep 2025

Viewed by 376

Abstract

As heritage cognition evolves, aligning conceptual understanding with conservation strategies becomes essential for effective practice. This study develops the Heritage Cognition–Conservation Paradigm Correspondence Framework, a methodological tool designed to evaluate the alignment between heritage cognition and conservation paradigms. Methodologically, the framework is constructed [...] Read more.

As heritage cognition evolves, aligning conceptual understanding with conservation strategies becomes essential for effective practice. This study develops the Heritage Cognition–Conservation Paradigm Correspondence Framework, a methodological tool designed to evaluate the alignment between heritage cognition and conservation paradigms. Methodologically, the framework is constructed through document analysis, conceptual classification, and framing co-construction. Building on a critical review of the development trajectory of heritage conservation, it integrates four cognitive phases and three conservation paradigms into a dual-axis matrix, operationalized through six analytical dimensions for heritage cognition and four for conservation paradigms. The framework is subsequently applied through a case study of Traditional Chinese Villages, demonstrating its diagnostic capacity and analytical utility. The case study reveals a significant misalignment: while official discourse reflects pluralistic heritage thinking (within the most advanced, fourth cognitive phase), conservation practice remains rooted in value-based logics and material-based approaches (within the initial paradigms). This misalignment stems from fragmented object recognition, form-focused objectives, and top–down governance structures that marginalize local agency and overlook cultural processes as the heritage nature of those villages. By establishing and operationalizing the correspondence framework, this study provides a transferable tool for diagnosing cognition–practice disjunctions across heritage contexts. Beyond its empirical findings, the study advances a methodological contribution for heritage conservation and advocates a strategic shift toward process-oriented, community-embedded approaches that emphasize cultural continuity, reframed objectives, and participatory governance. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Architectural Design, Urban Science, and Real Estate)

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52 pages, 3567 KB

Open AccessArticle

Modelling Project Control System Effectiveness in Saudi Arabian Construction Project Delivery

by Rashed Alotaibi, M. Sohail and Robby Soetanto

Buildings 2025, 15(18), 3426; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15183426 - 22 Sep 2025

Viewed by 924

Abstract

Persistent cost overruns, schedule delays, and weak control mechanisms continue to hinder construction project delivery in Saudi Arabia, where 64% of projects exceeded their planned time and 53% experienced cost overruns. Although project control systems (PCSs) have received increasing attention, existing research lacks [...] Read more.

Persistent cost overruns, schedule delays, and weak control mechanisms continue to hinder construction project delivery in Saudi Arabia, where 64% of projects exceeded their planned time and 53% experienced cost overruns. Although project control systems (PCSs) have received increasing attention, existing research lacks an empirically grounded and theory-informed framework explaining how project control system determinants (PCSDs) influence performance. This study addresses this gap by developing and testing an Input–Process–Output (IPO) model linking organisational, human, and technological inputs with operational control stages and project outcomes. Data were collected from 222 completed construction projects in Saudi Arabia using a cross-sectional survey of professionals directly involved in their delivery. Partial Least Squares Structural Equation Modelling (PLS-SEM) was applied to test hypothesised relationships, supported by Importance–Performance Map Analysis (IPMA) to identify high-impact but underperforming areas. Seventeen of twenty hypotheses were supported, highlighting the dominant role of post-operational controls, the significant indirect influence of in-operational controls, and the most impactful total effects of organisational factors on project performance through control processes. The IPMA results identified leadership and team capacity, estimation accuracy, stakeholder integration, PMO engagement, audits, knowledge management, and corrective scheduling actions as priority areas for improvement. This study provides the first empirical tests of a multi-dimensional PCS effectiveness model in the region, contributing both to the academic literature and practical efforts aimed at improving project delivery outcomes in alignment with national development goals, such as Saudi Vision 2030. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Construction Management, and Computers & Digitization)

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13 pages, 2688 KB

Open AccessArticle

Three-Dimensional Numerical Simulation for Mechanical Performance of Semi-Prefabricated Second Lining of Highway Tunnels

by Yangyang Bao, Haitao Bao, Yeongbin Yang and Yazhou Liu

Buildings 2025, 15(18), 3425; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15183425 - 22 Sep 2025

Viewed by 256

Abstract

To align with the development trends of green construction and industrialized building, prefabricated assembly technology has been widely applied in highway tunnel lining structures. However, when used in large-section highway tunnels, this technology faces challenges not only due to the large size of [...] Read more.

To align with the development trends of green construction and industrialized building, prefabricated assembly technology has been widely applied in highway tunnel lining structures. However, when used in large-section highway tunnels, this technology faces challenges not only due to the large size of the components but due to the high demands in the working space. In response to the limitations of traditional assembly methods, this paper proposes a semi-prefabricated secondary lining structure for highway tunnels. The mechanical performance of the second lining constructed by various segmentation schemes under surrounding rock pressure is analyzed using a 3D shell-spring finite element model, considering both the continuous and staggered seam layouts. This study provides technical support for the design of assembled secondary lining structures in large-section highway tunnels. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Building Structures)

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26 pages, 13521 KB

Open AccessArticle

Design Strategies for Modular Demountable Building Products Oriented to Design for Manufacturing and Assembly: A Case Study of M-Box1.0

by Meng Wang, Yifan Jing, Jianghua Wang, Pawel Mika, Feng Li and Yikang Yan

Buildings 2025, 15(18), 3424; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15183424 - 22 Sep 2025

Viewed by 591

Abstract

With the advancement of building industrialization and sustainable development, modular demountable buildings, as an efficient and environmentally friendly form, show significant potential in scenarios such as emergency housing and rural construction. However, they face issues including insufficient component adaptability, low demounting efficiency, and [...] Read more.

With the advancement of building industrialization and sustainable development, modular demountable buildings, as an efficient and environmentally friendly form, show significant potential in scenarios such as emergency housing and rural construction. However, they face issues including insufficient component adaptability, low demounting efficiency, and low integration level. Based on the Design for Manufacturing and Assembly (DFMA) theory, this paper proposes solutions and takes M-Box1.0 as a case study to explore design strategies from four dimensions: product modularization, logistics optimization, rationality of demounting, and component integration. The results show that M-Box1.0 has excellent ventilation and lighting performance. Compared with similar products on the market, it has fewer parts and lower costs. Moreover, it reduces construction waste through prefabrication and demountable connections. This study clarifies the advantages of DFMA-oriented design and has practical significance for promoting the efficient and energy-saving development of building industrialization. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Architectural Design, Urban Science, and Real Estate)

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24 pages, 3755 KB

Open AccessArticle

Efficient Lightweight CNN and 2D Visualization for Concrete Crack Detection in Bridges

by Xianqiang Wang, Feng Zhang and Xingxing Zou

Buildings 2025, 15(18), 3423; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15183423 - 22 Sep 2025

Viewed by 514

Abstract

The durability and safety of modern concrete architecture and infrastructure are critically impacted by early-stage surface cracks. Timely and appropriate identification and management of these cracks are therefore essential to enhance structural longevity and stability. This study utilizes computer vision technology to construct [...] Read more.

The durability and safety of modern concrete architecture and infrastructure are critically impacted by early-stage surface cracks. Timely and appropriate identification and management of these cracks are therefore essential to enhance structural longevity and stability. This study utilizes computer vision technology to construct a large-scale database, comprising 106,998 concrete surface crack images from various research sources. Through data augmentation, the database is extended to 140,000 images to fully leverage the advantages of deep learning models. For concrete surface crack detection, this study proposed a lightweight convolutional neural network (CNN) model, achieving 92.27% accuracy, 94.98% recall, and a 92.39% F1 score. Notably, the model runs smoothly on lightweight office notebooks without GPUs. Additionally, an image stitching algorithm that seamlessly stitches multiple images was proposed to generate high-quality panoramic views of bridges. The image stitching algorithm demonstrates robustness when applied to multiple images, successfully achieving stitching without visible seams or errors, providing efficient and reliable technical support for bridge panorama generation. The research outcomes demonstrate significant practical value in bridge inspection, providing robust technical support for safe and efficient bridge inspection. Moreover, our findings offer valuable references for future research and applications in related fields. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Machine Learning in Infrastructure Monitoring and Disaster Management)

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44 pages, 4769 KB

Open AccessReview

Porosity and Permeability in Construction Materials as Key Parameters for Their Durability and Performance: A Review

by Almudena Ortiz-Marqués, Pablo Caldevilla, Eryk Goldmann, Małgorzata Safuta, María Fernández-Raga and Marcin Górski

Buildings 2025, 15(18), 3422; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15183422 - 22 Sep 2025

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1388

Abstract

This review provides a comprehensive examination of porosity and permeability as key parameters governing the durability and performance of construction materials, including natural stone, mortar, concrete, and other cementitious composites. It highlights the pivotal role of pore structure in transport phenomena and degradation [...] Read more.

This review provides a comprehensive examination of porosity and permeability as key parameters governing the durability and performance of construction materials, including natural stone, mortar, concrete, and other cementitious composites. It highlights the pivotal role of pore structure in transport phenomena and degradation mechanisms, examining how the variations in pore architecture, encompassing total vs. effective porosity, pore size distribution, and pore connectivity, dictate a material’s response to environmental stressors. A comparative evaluation of advanced pore characterization techniques is presented, including helium pycnometry, mercury intrusion porosimetry (MIP), nitrogen adsorption (BET/BJH), nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) relaxometry, and imaging methods such as optical microscopy, scanning electron microscopy (SEM), and X-ray micro-computed tomography (micro-CT). Furthermore, it assesses how these porosity and permeability characteristics influence durability-related processes like freeze–thaw cycling, chloride ingress, sulphate attack, and carbonation. Case studies are discussed in which various additives have been employed to refine the pore structure of cement-based materials, and pervious concrete is highlighted as an example where deliberately high porosity and permeability confer functional benefits (e.g., enhanced drainage). Overall, these insights underscore the importance of tailoring porosity and permeability in material design to enhance durability and sustainability in construction engineering. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Building Solutions: Harnessing Nanotechnology, Smart Materials, and Photocatalysis for Enhanced Durability and Sustainability)

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23 pages, 2011 KB

Open AccessArticle

A Second-Order Second-Moment Approximate Probabilistic Design Method for Structural Components Considering the Curvature of Limit State Surfaces

by Hanmin Liu, Yicheng Mao, Zhenhao Zhang, Fang Yuan and Fuming Wang

Buildings 2025, 15(18), 3421; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15183421 - 22 Sep 2025

Viewed by 271

Abstract

The current engineering structural design code employs a direct probability design method based on the Taylor series expansion of the performance function at verification points, retaining only linear terms. This approach ignores the curvature and other nonlinear properties of the performance function, leading [...] Read more.

The current engineering structural design code employs a direct probability design method based on the Taylor series expansion of the performance function at verification points, retaining only linear terms. This approach ignores the curvature and other nonlinear properties of the performance function, leading to insufficient accuracy. To address the deficiencies of the current design method, this paper develops an approximate probability design method that considers the curvature of the limit state surface, integrating it with the second-order moment theory based on the direct probability design method. Using a simply supported plate as a representative example, this paper systematically compares the performance of the proposed design method with the direct probability design method, the partial coefficient method, and the design value method in reinforcement design. The reinforcement areas calculated by the four methods are similar, confirming the correctness and practicality of the proposed method for engineering applications. The accuracy of the design outcomes from the various methods is validated through Monte Carlo simulation. The results indicate that the method proposed in this paper exhibits a high accuracy, with the relative errors of the reliability indices in the two examples being 0.346% and 0.228%, respectively—significantly lower than those of the direct probability design method (2.919% and 0.769%, respectively). This underscores the effectiveness and substantial benefits of the proposed method in structural reliability design, offering a dependable, highly accurate, and economically viable design tool for engineering applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Reliability, Resilience and Sustainability for Construction and Infrastructure Systems)

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22 pages, 4204 KB

Open AccessArticle

Eco-Friendly Flame-Retardant Construction Composites Based on Bio-Based TPU, Recycled Rice Husk, and Ammonium Polyphosphate

by Chen-Feng Kuan, Chane-Yuan Yang, Hsu-Chiang Kuan, Min-Chin Chung and Yeng-Fong Shih

Buildings 2025, 15(18), 3420; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15183420 - 22 Sep 2025

Viewed by 576

Abstract

This study explores the use of agricultural waste rice husk powder (RH) as a sustainable alternative to the petrochemical-derived carbon source, pentaerythritol (PER), in expandable flame retardants. RH is combined with halogen-free ammonium polyphosphate (APP), which serves as both an acid and a [...] Read more.

This study explores the use of agricultural waste rice husk powder (RH) as a sustainable alternative to the petrochemical-derived carbon source, pentaerythritol (PER), in expandable flame retardants. RH is combined with halogen-free ammonium polyphosphate (APP), which serves as both an acid and a gas source. The resulting APP/RH system is incorporated into bio-based thermoplastic polyurethane (Biobased TPU) to prepare a halogen-free, flame-retardant composite material consistent with circular economy principles and environmental sustainability. The optimal APP-to-RH ratio in bio-based TPU was determined to be 2:1, with the best flame-retardant performance observed in the composite containing 20 wt% APP/RH. This formulation achieved a limiting oxygen index (LOI) of 27% and a UL-94 V-0 rating, indicating excellent flame resistance. Thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) showed a significant increase in char residue—from 0.51 wt% in pure TPU to 26.1 wt%—demonstrating improved thermal stability. Further characterization using cone calorimetry, thermogravimetric analysis–Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (TGA-FTIR), X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), and Raman spectroscopy confirmed that the addition of APP/RH significantly enhances the flame-retardant properties of the TPU composite. Consequently, the application of TPU in construction materials can be advanced through improved fire safety performance and alignment with sustainability goals. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Building Materials, and Repair & Renovation)

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22 pages, 5162 KB

Open AccessArticle

Simulation Study on Age-Friendly Design of Community Park Activity Spaces Based on AnyLogic: A Case Study of Qiaokou Park in Wuhan

by Yuting Zhou and Qian Zhao

Buildings 2025, 15(18), 3419; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15183419 - 22 Sep 2025

Viewed by 683

Abstract

With the intensification of population aging, addressing the needs of older adults and enhancing their daily activities has become increasingly significant. This study focuses on community parks—frequent outdoor activity venues for older adults—as the research subject. Starting from older adults’ needs, pedestrian simulation [...] Read more.

With the intensification of population aging, addressing the needs of older adults and enhancing their daily activities has become increasingly significant. This study focuses on community parks—frequent outdoor activity venues for older adults—as the research subject. Starting from older adults’ needs, pedestrian simulation technology was employed using AnyLogic to model their behavioral activities within Qiaokou Park in Wuhan. Unlike previous studies applying simulation tools to general public spaces, this research develops age-sensitive indicators (Pedestrian Walking Cost, Connectivity of Activity Space Nodes, Functional Mix Efficiency, Activity Intensity of Activity Space Nodes, Pedestrian Density Map) tailored to older adults’ behavioral and spatial characteristics. Integrating empirical data from questionnaires and on-site observations with simulation, the study establishes a systematic framework linking user needs and spatial design. Based on simulation outputs, the park’s current “non-age-friendly” issues were analyzed, and optimization strategies were proposed regarding service capacity, functional layout, and pathways. The optimized scheme underwent secondary simulation to evaluate improvements in spatial indicators. This approach extends the methodological toolkit for age-friendly park research and provides replicable, evidence-based guidance for community park renovation in rapidly aging urban contexts. Key recommendations include the following: (1) Improve the relationship between activity nodes and park entrances; (2) Enhance connectivity among nodes to support continuous activity flows; (3) Optimize the pathway network to reduce congestion and barriers; (4) Promote functional diversity to stimulate active and social use; (5) Strengthen service capacity of nodes to accommodate user demand. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Architectural Design, Urban Science, and Real Estate)

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18 pages, 3441 KB

Open AccessArticle

Investigation on Influence of Friction Plate Material Properties on Hysteretic Performance and Stability of Friction Dampers

by Fengzhe Jiang, Guangyu Xu, Jianping Liu, Shaohui Dang, Zahid Irshad, Yanchao Yue and Chen Guo

Buildings 2025, 15(18), 3418; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15183418 - 22 Sep 2025

Viewed by 408

Abstract

Friction dampers are widely used in building seismic protection due to their excellent shock-absorbing performance and reliable operation. To clarify the influence of friction plate material properties on the hysteretic behavior and stability of friction dampers, this study selected three materials with distinct [...] Read more.

Friction dampers are widely used in building seismic protection due to their excellent shock-absorbing performance and reliable operation. To clarify the influence of friction plate material properties on the hysteretic behavior and stability of friction dampers, this study selected three materials with distinct physical properties (density, hardness, and stiffness)—titanium alloy, brass, and zirconia ceramic—as friction plate candidates. Three sets of low-cycle reciprocating load tests were designed to obtain the hysteretic curves of dampers with different friction plates and analyze their energy dissipation capacity and operational stability. Results show that the hysteretic curves of the copper-steel and titanium-steel plate specimens are close to the ideal rectangular shape, with symmetric force–displacement relationships and stable energy dissipation. The copper-steel plate exhibits strong energy dissipation capacity and high cost-effectiveness, while the titanium-steel plate has moderate energy dissipation capacity but stability comparable to that of the copper-steel plate. In contrast, the friction force of ceramic-steel plate specimens shows obvious divergence as displacement increases, leading to poor overall stability. The friction coefficient between the friction plate material and the main plate material exerts a significant influence on the damper’s energy dissipation, and a stable friction mode serves as a guarantee for its normal operation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Building Structures)

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20 pages, 16720 KB

Open AccessArticle

Study of Factors Influencing the Longitudinal Mechanical Performance of Shield Tunnels Traversing Soft–Hard Heterogeneous Soils

by Xiaojie Xue, Qingcheng Zeng, Xushu Peng, Qihang Ran, Yi Xie, Bohan Wu and Luxiang Wu

Buildings 2025, 15(18), 3417; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15183417 - 22 Sep 2025

Viewed by 363

Abstract

To investigate the longitudinal mechanical behavior of shield tunnels traversing soft and hard heterogeneous strata, a refined three-dimensional numerical model was developed using ABAQUS. The model includes tunnel segments, longitudinal bolts, reinforcement, longitudinal thrust, and additional loading conditions to simulate realistic mechanical responses [...] Read more.

To investigate the longitudinal mechanical behavior of shield tunnels traversing soft and hard heterogeneous strata, a refined three-dimensional numerical model was developed using ABAQUS. The model includes tunnel segments, longitudinal bolts, reinforcement, longitudinal thrust, and additional loading conditions to simulate realistic mechanical responses during construction and operation. The results show that significant differential settlement occurs at the interface between soft and hard soils. Greater joint dislocation is observed on the soft soil side, while joint opening is more pronounced on the hard soil side. Compressive damage concentrates at the soil interface, whereas tensile damage is more severe in soft soil zones. The dislocation at the vault is distributed over a wider area but has a smaller magnitude than that at the arch bottom. Parametric analysis indicates that increasing longitudinal thrust enhances tunnel stiffness and reduces joint dislocation. However, it also leads to increased compressive and tensile damage due to greater trans-verse deformation. Optimizing bolt configuration, including diameter, inclination, and quantity, improves longitudinal stiffness and joint integrity, helping to reduce tensile damage and control deformation. These findings provide theoretical support for the structural design and performance optimization of shield tunnels in complex geological environments. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Solid Mechanics as Applied to Civil Engineering)

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1 pages, 122 KB

Open AccessCorrection

Correction: Wang et al. Household Carbon Emissions Research from 2005 to 2024: An Analytical Review of Assessment, Influencing Factors, and Mitigation Pathways. Buildings 2025, 15, 3172

by Yuanping Wang, Changhui Sun, Yueyue Fan, Shaotong Su, Chun Wang, Ruiling Wang and Payam Rahnamayiezekavat

Buildings 2025, 15(18), 3416; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15183416 - 22 Sep 2025

Viewed by 243

Abstract

In the published publication [...] Full article

22 pages, 4160 KB

Open AccessArticle

External Temperature Distribution and Characteristics of Building-Integrated Photovoltaics (BIPV) Under Summer High-Temperature Conditions

by Yingge Zhang, Tian Mu and Yibing Xue

Buildings 2025, 15(18), 3415; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15183415 - 22 Sep 2025

Viewed by 415

Abstract

This study investigates the external environmental temperature distribution of a small single-story BIPV building on a university campus in Jinan City, Shandong Province, China, under the most adverse summer high-temperature conditions. The temporal and spatial distribution characteristics and variation patterns of building external [...] Read more.

This study investigates the external environmental temperature distribution of a small single-story BIPV building on a university campus in Jinan City, Shandong Province, China, under the most adverse summer high-temperature conditions. The temporal and spatial distribution characteristics and variation patterns of building external temperature are analyzed. The results indicated the following: (1) During summer high-temperature days, the peak temperature of the BIPV photovoltaic surface reached 52.4 °C, which is 17.4 °C higher than the ambient temperature. (2) External measurement points exhibited significant daytime heating (+2.86 °C) and nighttime cooling (average relative temperature increment of −1.52 °C). (3) Complex nonlinear temperature gradient variations existed within the 10–100 cm range from the surface, with localized heat accumulation occurring around 60 cm, where 77% of high-temperature days show temperature gradient anomalies. (4) Based on dimensionless analysis, a modified Richardson criterion for BIPV buildings is established: Ri < 0.3 represents building-geometry-dominated mechanisms, and Ri > 0.7 represents thermal-plume-dominated mechanisms. The critical values occur earlier than in classical theory. (5) Solar radiation and wind speed are key factors affecting temperature distribution, with more pronounced local heat accumulation under low-wind-speed conditions. This study provides scientific evidence for BIPV building performance optimization and environmental control. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Advances in Low-Carbon, Climate-Resilient, and Sustainable Built Environment)

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20 pages, 7213 KB

Open AccessArticle

Study on Carbon Emission Accounting and Influencing Factors of Chinese Buildings in Materialization Stage

by Juan Yin, Guangchang Lu, Jie Pang, Yu Yang and Lisha Mo

Buildings 2025, 15(18), 3414; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15183414 - 21 Sep 2025

Viewed by 391

Abstract

Carbon emissions in the building materialization stage are highly significant and concentrated. Quantification at this stage is essential for assessing carbon reduction potential, guiding energy-saving strategies, and supporting China’s “dual carbon” goals in the construction sector. Distinct from conventional environmental and energy economics [...] Read more.

Carbon emissions in the building materialization stage are highly significant and concentrated. Quantification at this stage is essential for assessing carbon reduction potential, guiding energy-saving strategies, and supporting China’s “dual carbon” goals in the construction sector. Distinct from conventional environmental and energy economics analytical approaches, the building carbon emissions in the materialization stage (BCEMS) in 30 provinces of China from 2010 to 2021 were calculated using multi-source data, and the characteristics of their spatio-temporal evolution were analyzed. The key influencing factors were identified using a geographic detector, and their spatial heterogeneity was analyzed with the Geographically and Temporally Weighted Regression (GTWR) model from a geographical analysis perspective. The results indicated the following: (1) From 2010 to 2021, BCEMS exhibited a trend of an “initial increase followed by a decrease and subsequent fluctuation”, with an average annual growth rate of 4.28%. Building materials were the largest contributor to BCEMS, particularly cement and steel. Spatially, the emissions displayed a pattern of “higher in the east, lower in the west”. High–high-agglomeration areas remained stable over time, primarily in Zhejiang and Fujian provinces, while low–low-agglomeration areas were concentrated in Xinjiang. (2) Single-factor detection revealed that fixed assets, population density, and the liabilities of construction enterprises were the dominant factors driving the emissions’ spatial evolution. Two-factor interaction detection identified the economic society and the construction industry as the key influencing domains. (3) The economic development level and the total population showed a positive correlation with BCEMS, with the effect intensity increasing from west to east. The urbanization level and fixed assets also generally showed a positive correlation with BCEMS; however, their effect intensity initially increased positively from west to east and then turned into a negative enhancement. The findings provide references for implementing regionally differentiated carbon reduction measures and promoting green and low-carbon urban transformation in China’s construction industry. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Building Energy, Physics, Environment, and Systems)

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32 pages, 5252 KB

Open AccessArticle

Evaluating Perceptions of Cultural Heritage Creativity Using an SEM-GIS Model: A Case Study of Qingzhou Mountain, Macau

by Yuchen Shao, Danrui Li, Jiaqi Chen, Mengyan Jia, Xiao Ding and Zaiyi Liao

Buildings 2025, 15(18), 3413; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15183413 - 21 Sep 2025

Viewed by 542

Abstract

Macau’s Ching Chau Hill, as a composite entity of modern industrial heritage and natural cultural landscape, faces the dual challenges of conservation and regeneration. This study takes Ching Chau Hill as a case study, integrating structural equation modeling (SEM) with Geographic Information System [...] Read more.

Macau’s Ching Chau Hill, as a composite entity of modern industrial heritage and natural cultural landscape, faces the dual challenges of conservation and regeneration. This study takes Ching Chau Hill as a case study, integrating structural equation modeling (SEM) with Geographic Information System (GIS) technology and combining the theory of the creative class, to construct an evaluation model of “industrial heritage-creative perception-cultural innovation.” Through questionnaire surveys, data from the creative class were collected, and SEM was employed for path analysis and hypothesis testing, while GIS was used for spatial analysis and visualization. This study systematically explores the creative perception pathways of industrial heritage value from the perspective of the creative class and its driving mechanisms for cultural inheritance and innovation. This study found that the retention rate of industrial structures (73%) and the “sacred-industrial” axis formed by the integrity of the spatial sequence (β = 0.58) together constitute the core of the material attachment path, and there is a significant threshold for the site identity effect: when the material authenticity score exceeds the 3.5 critical point, the identity value jumps by 37.8%, which provides a quantitative basis for the precise protection of “ruin aesthetics”. In the process of transforming cultural inheritance into innovative practice, the participation in creative activities showed a mediating effect of 72.1%, and the driving efficiency of co-creation activities was ten times higher than that of ceremonial guided tours, confirming the core position of “learning by doing” in heritage revitalization. The results show the following: (1) the creative class’s perception of the aesthetic uniqueness and historical memory of Ching Chau Hill’s industrial heritage significantly and positively influences their recognition of its creative value; (2) spatial accessibility and environmental atmosphere are key geographical factors affecting creative perception; (3) recognition of creative value effectively drives the innovative transformation of cultural heritage by stimulating participation willingness and innovative ideas. This study provides a strategy basis with both theoretical depth and practical guidance value for the revitalization and utilization of industrial heritage in post-industrial urban renewal. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Architectural Design, Urban Science, and Real Estate)

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25 pages, 6841 KB

Open AccessArticle

Research on the Optimization of Selecting Traditional Dwellings Patio Renovation Measures in Hot Summer and Cold Winter Zone Based on Thermal Comfort and Energy Consumption

by Jie Wang, Weiwu Han, Yinhao Xia, Jianhua Xuan, Meijing Chen, Huan Zhang, Shutian Li and Kuan Wang

Buildings 2025, 15(18), 3412; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15183412 - 21 Sep 2025

Viewed by 362

Abstract

Patio-style dwellings are a highly representative category of traditional dwellings in the Yangtze River Delta region of China. As a crucial climate-adjusting space for traditional dwellings in the hot summer and cold winter zone, patios have long been the focus of practice and [...] Read more.

Patio-style dwellings are a highly representative category of traditional dwellings in the Yangtze River Delta region of China. As a crucial climate-adjusting space for traditional dwellings in the hot summer and cold winter zone, patios have long been the focus of practice and research in traditional dwelling renovation. Previous studies have mostly focused on how the shape and scale of patios affect their performance in terms of ventilation, lighting, and thermal environment; however, there is a lack of research on how patio renovation measures influence the thermal comfort of spaces surrounding patios. Based on the two goals of improving the thermal comfort of the general hall space and reducing the overall building energy consumption, this paper takes the patio renovation of Huaigengtang Dwelling as a case study. We use the Design Builder (v7.0.2.006) simulation software to analyze the impact of 10 selected patio measures on thermal comfort and energy consumption and adopt the entropy weight method to conduct a comprehensive evaluation of the indicators for thermal comfort improvement and energy consumption reduction. The quantitative simulation is divided into two scenarios: one where the patio maintains natural ventilation, and the other where the patio is renovated into an enclosed space with split-type air conditioners used for cooling and heating. We select a single patio renovation measure and a combined patio renovation measure based on the values of the comprehensive scores. Regarding the application of the selected optimal measures, and in combination with the dual needs of functional improvement and performance enhancement in traditional dwelling renovation practice, this paper analyzes the corresponding relationships between three types of functional improvement—inheritance-type renovation, optimization-type renovation and replacement-type renovation—and the two performance evaluation indicators, namely thermal comfort improvement and energy consumption reduction, so as to propose the optimal recommendation schemes for different renovation scenarios. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Cutting-Edge Research on Smart, Sustainable, and Resilient Buildings and Cities)

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20 pages, 3219 KB

Open AccessArticle

An Interpretable Machine Learning Approach to Studying Environmental Safety Perception Among Elderly Residents in Pocket Parks

by Shengzhen Wu, Sichao Wu, Jingru Chen and Chen Pan

Buildings 2025, 15(18), 3411; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15183411 - 20 Sep 2025

Viewed by 422

Abstract

This research explores the environmental safety challenges faced by pocket parks in the context of urban aging within Chinese cities. It systematically analyzes visual elements that influence the elderly’s perception of environmental safety by applying interpretable machine learning techniques. By integrating panoramic image [...] Read more.

This research explores the environmental safety challenges faced by pocket parks in the context of urban aging within Chinese cities. It systematically analyzes visual elements that influence the elderly’s perception of environmental safety by applying interpretable machine learning techniques. By integrating panoramic image semantic segmentation and explainable AI models (e.g., SHAP and PDP), the study transforms subjective environmental perception into measurable indicators and constructs an environmental safety perception model using the LightGBM algorithm. Results indicate that sufficient pedestrian areas and moderate crowd activities significantly enhance safety perception among the elderly. Conversely, the presence of cars emerges as the most substantial adverse factor. Natural elements, such as vegetation and grass, exhibit nonlinear effects on safety perception, with an optimal threshold range identified. The research further elucidates the intricate synergies and constraints among visual elements, underscoring that the highest perceived safety arises from the synergistic combination of positive factors. This study deepens the understanding of environmental perception among the elderly and offers a data-driven framework and practical guidelines for urban planners and designers. It holds significant theoretical and practical implications for advancing the refined and human-centered renewal of urban public spaces. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Practice and Application of Artificial Intelligence in Built Environment)

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3 pages, 114 KB

Open AccessEditorial

Buildings’ Thermal Performance and Energy Efficiency for Sustainable Construction

by Jingyuan Zhao, Xuan Ma and Qian Zhang

Buildings 2025, 15(18), 3410; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15183410 - 20 Sep 2025

Viewed by 508

Abstract

The accelerating challenges of climate change and the global pursuit of sustainable development have positioned building thermal performance and energy efficiency at the forefront of academic and practical discourse [...] Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Buildings' Thermal Performance and Energy Efficiency for a Sustainable Construction)

27 pages, 5992 KB

Open AccessArticle

Theoretical and Numerical Simulation Analysis of the Axial Compressive Performance of Recycled Aggregate Concrete-Filled Steel Tubular Columns for Bridges

by Dong Li, Fanxi Wu, Changjiang Liu, Weihua Ye and Yiqian Chen

Buildings 2025, 15(18), 3409; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15183409 - 20 Sep 2025

Viewed by 405

Abstract

To advance the application of sustainable recycled aggregate concrete (RAC) in bridge engineering, this study introduces a novel reinforced RAC-filled circular steel tubular (RRACFCST) column, leveraging the dual confinement of an external steel tube and an internal reinforcement cage. Its primary novelty is [...] Read more.

To advance the application of sustainable recycled aggregate concrete (RAC) in bridge engineering, this study introduces a novel reinforced RAC-filled circular steel tubular (RRACFCST) column, leveraging the dual confinement of an external steel tube and an internal reinforcement cage. Its primary novelty is a comprehensive analytical framework integrating a new theoretical model by using limit analysis, ferrule theory, and the twin shear unified strength theory. Then, a rigorously validated nonlinear finite element model that incorporated material nonlinearity and interface effects was used to validate the proposed theoretical model. The results demonstrate the significant performance of the steel reinforcement cage, which enhanced the axial bearing capacity by 17.86%, and an optimal recycled aggregate replacement rate of 70% yielded the bearing capacity, with 100% replacement still achieving a 13.3% higher capacity than unconfined conventional concrete, demonstrating how effective confinement can compensate for and overcome the inherent deficiencies of RCA. Conversely, larger diameter–thickness ratios would reduce the strength by 33.7%. These quantifiable findings provide critical design insights and a validated predictive tool, establishing the RRACFCST column as a promising and high-performance sustainable solution for bridge structures. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Utilization of Recycled Aggregates and Waste in Sustainable Concrete Materials)

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25 pages, 4735 KB

Open AccessArticle

Inversion of Thermal Parameters and Temperature Field Prediction for Concrete Box Girders Based on BO-XGBoost

by Tongquan Yang, Xiang Wang, Qingfu Li, Ao Xu and Xiyu Ma

Buildings 2025, 15(18), 3408; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15183408 - 20 Sep 2025

Viewed by 378

Abstract

To mitigate thermal cracking in concrete box girders during construction, this study introduces an inversion method for thermal parameters by integrating machine learning with finite element simulation. The research aims to accurately identify key thermal parameters—thermal conductivity k, total hydration heat Q [...] Read more.

To mitigate thermal cracking in concrete box girders during construction, this study introduces an inversion method for thermal parameters by integrating machine learning with finite element simulation. The research aims to accurately identify key thermal parameters—thermal conductivity k, total hydration heat Q₀, convection coefficient h, and reaction coefficient m—through an efficient and reliable data-driven approach. An orthogonal experimental design was used to construct a representative sample database, and a Bayesian-optimized XGBoost (BO-XGBoost) model was developed to establish a nonlinear mapping between temperature peaks and thermal parameters. Validated against field monitoring data from a prestressed concrete continuous rigid-frame bridge, the method demonstrated high accuracy: the inversiontemperature curves closely matched measured data, with a maximum peak temperature error of only 1.40 °C (relative error 2.5%). Compared to conventional machine learning models (DT, SVR, BP and LSTM), BO-XGBoost showed superior predictive performance and convergence efficiency. The proposed approach provides a scientific basis for real-time temperature control and crack prevention in concrete box girders and is applicable to temperature field analysis in mass concrete structures. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Construction Management, and Computers & Digitization)

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18 pages, 2713 KB

Open AccessArticle

Optimization of Smartphone-Based Strain Measurement Algorithm Utilizing Arc-Support Line Segments

by Qiwen Cui, Changfei Gou, Shengan Lu and Botao Xie

Buildings 2025, 15(18), 3407; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15183407 - 20 Sep 2025

Viewed by 377

Abstract

Smartphone-based strain monitoring of structural components is an emerging approach to structural health monitoring. However, the existing techniques suffer from limited accuracy and poor cross-device adaptability. This study aims to optimize the smartphone-based Micro Image Strain Sensing (MISS) method by replacing the traditional [...] Read more.

Smartphone-based strain monitoring of structural components is an emerging approach to structural health monitoring. However, the existing techniques suffer from limited accuracy and poor cross-device adaptability. This study aims to optimize the smartphone-based Micro Image Strain Sensing (MISS) method by replacing the traditional Connected Component Labeling (CCL) algorithm with the arc-support line segments (ASLS) algorithm, thereby significantly enhancing the stability and adaptability of circle detection in micro-images captured by diverse smartphones. Additionally, this study evaluates the impact of lighting conditions and lens distortion on the optimized MISS method. The experimental results demonstrate that the ASLS algorithm outperforms CCL in terms of recognition accuracy (maximum error of 0.94%) and cross-device adaptability, exhibiting greater robustness against color temperature and focal length variations. Under fluctuating lighting conditions, the strain measurement noise remains within ±0.5 με and with a maximum error of 7.0 με compared to LVDT measurements, indicating the strong adaptability of the optimized MISS method to external light changes. Barrel distortion in microscopic images induces a maximum pixel error of 5.66%, yet the final optimized MISS method achieves highly accurate strain measurements. The optimized MISS method significantly improves measurement stability and engineering applicability, enabling effective large-scale implementation for strain monitoring of civil infrastructure. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Building Structures)

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17 pages, 6400 KB

Open AccessArticle

Research on the Mechanical Properties and Micro-Evolution Characteristics of Coal Gangue-Based Composite Cementitious Materials

by Gongcheng Li, Yuzhong Wang, Xun Chen, Huazhe Jiao, Guodong Zhu, Zongyu Fan, Mingfa Gao, Wenlong Xu, Feng Dong and Liuyang Yao

Buildings 2025, 15(18), 3406; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15183406 - 20 Sep 2025

Viewed by 417

Abstract

With the rapid development of industry, landfill and other environmental problems have arisen due to the coal mining and industrial solid waste generated during coal extraction and industrial production. In this study, coal gangue was utilized as the filling aggregate, along with industrial [...] Read more.

With the rapid development of industry, landfill and other environmental problems have arisen due to the coal mining and industrial solid waste generated during coal extraction and industrial production. In this study, coal gangue was utilized as the filling aggregate, along with industrial solid waste as the principal constituent, supplemented by cement, to develop a novel type of cementitious material and address environmental problems arising from the storage of solid waste. The impacts of sodium silicate, lime, and cement on the excitation characteristics and micro-evolution of steel slag–slag-based composite cementitious materials were investigated through experimental proportioning. The mineral composition, chemical composition, particle size distribution, microstructure, and hydration products of the filling materials were analyzed through XRD, XRF, a laser particle size analyzer, and SEM. The results show the following: (1) When the mass ratio of steel slag, slag, cement, sodium silicate, and lime is 30:38:15:2:15, the compressive strength of the Cemented Gangue Filling Body (CGFB) reaches the optimum level. At this juncture, the compressive strength of CGFB at 3 days is 2.16 MPa, and that at 28 days is 4.18 MPa. (2) Na₂SiO₃ and lime can activate the latent active substances within slag and steel slag, generating C-S-H gel and AFt through hydration reaction. (3) As the curing time escalates, the microstructure of the filling body becomes increasingly compact, and the porosity decreases from 10.5% to 3.8%. This study not only presents a new technical means for the resource treatment of solid waste such as coal gangue but also provides powerful support for the development and application of mine filling materials. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Green and Low-Carbon Comprehensive Utilization of Solid Waste Resources)

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23 pages, 2059 KB

Open AccessArticle

Investigating the Performance of the Attention Mechanism and the Interpretability in the Concrete Strength Prediction Model

by Ziang Jia, Noor Azline Mohd Nasir and Nabilah Abu Bakar

Buildings 2025, 15(18), 3405; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15183405 - 19 Sep 2025

Viewed by 331

Abstract

To address the limitations of traditional models in capturing complex features for concrete strength prediction, this study proposes a hybrid deep learning approach that integrates multiple attention mechanisms with gated recurrent units (GRU). The methodology employs a multi-scale validation framework, conducting three-dimensional validation [...] Read more.

To address the limitations of traditional models in capturing complex features for concrete strength prediction, this study proposes a hybrid deep learning approach that integrates multiple attention mechanisms with gated recurrent units (GRU). The methodology employs a multi-scale validation framework, conducting three-dimensional validation across three datasets: the Kaggle standard dataset, the lightweight foam concrete dataset, and the self-compacting concrete dataset. Six attention mechanisms (SE attention, dot-product attention, self-attention, etc.) are comprehensively compared to optimise the GRU network structure. A Newton–Raphson-based optimiser (NRBO) enables hyperparameter adaptive tuning. Experimental results show significant improvements over the baseline GRU model: mean R² increased by 6.99%, while RMSE and MAE decreased by 38.5% and 37.5%, respectively. SHAP interpretability analysis confirms that attention mechanisms effectively capture key parameters like SP and VMA in the self-compacting concrete dataset. Based on the findings, this study recommends using self-attention for datasets smaller than 200 samples and selecting the higher-accuracy model between self-attention and stacked attention mechanisms for larger datasets. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Building Materials, and Repair & Renovation)

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17 pages, 801 KB

Open AccessArticle

A Study on the Comprehensive Cost Risk Evaluation of Highway Construction Based on the AHP-Improved Entropy Weight Method

by Baojing Zhang, Yipeng Zheng and Jin Chen

Buildings 2025, 15(18), 3404; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15183404 - 19 Sep 2025

Viewed by 399

Abstract

To address the challenges of multiple cost-influencing factors, high risks, and difficult control in highway construction projects, this study conducts a cost risk assessment based on the full-process perspective of project owners. Considering the long duration and distinct phases of highway construction projects, [...] Read more.

To address the challenges of multiple cost-influencing factors, high risks, and difficult control in highway construction projects, this study conducts a cost risk assessment based on the full-process perspective of project owners. Considering the long duration and distinct phases of highway construction projects, the study employs a literature-based statistical method to identify the factors influencing cost risks and establishes an evaluation index system for cost risk factors throughout the entire construction process. Based on questionnaire surveys, the study applies the Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP) to calculate the initial weights of the cost risk factors. Then, the improved entropy weight method is used to compute the correction coefficients for the initial weights and determine the final weight of each influencing factor. By integrating the results from AHP, the comprehensive weights of all factors are obtained, thereby identifying the key factors affecting cost risks throughout the entire highway construction process. Additionally, cost risk prevention and control measures are proposed. The research findings indicate that among the 42 evaluation factors, the ten factors with the greatest impact on project cost risks are project positioning changes, price inflation, unclear or erroneous contract terms, lack of supervision by design units, delayed compensation payments, collusion in bidding (including bid-rigging and cover bidding), lack of coordination among different departments leading to schedule risks, construction claims risks, risks associated with bidding methods, and financing risks. These ten key factors are analyzed in detail, and corresponding risk prevention and control measures are proposed. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Construction Management, and Computers & Digitization)

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30 pages, 3594 KB

Open AccessArticle

Construction of Landscape Heritage Corridors in Ethnic Minority Villages Based on LCA-MSPA-MCR Framework: A Case Study of the Nanling Ethnic Corridor Region in China

by Xiaoxiang Tang, Junxiang Mei and Ye Tang

Buildings 2025, 15(18), 3403; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15183403 - 19 Sep 2025

Viewed by 593

Abstract

To address the challenges of the loss of ethnic cultural carriers and the spatial fragmentation of landscape management due to rural population shrinkage, constructing heritage corridors has emerged as a crucial strategy for integrating fragmented resources, enhancing cultural landscape connectivity, and improving functional [...] Read more.

To address the challenges of the loss of ethnic cultural carriers and the spatial fragmentation of landscape management due to rural population shrinkage, constructing heritage corridors has emerged as a crucial strategy for integrating fragmented resources, enhancing cultural landscape connectivity, and improving functional resilience. Using the Nanling Ethnic Corridor in China as a case study, this research proposes an integrated method combining Landscape Character Assessment (LCA), Morphological Spatial Pattern Analysis (MSPA), and the Minimum Cumulative Resistance (MCR) model, aiming to construct a landscape heritage corridor network for ethnic villages. Firstly, LCA was employed to identify 12 categories of landscape characters, followed by a multi-dimensional value evaluation to determine high-value landscape areas. Subsequently, MSPA was used to extract core landscape patches, and the importance of these patches was assessed by combining connectivity indices (dIIC, dPC), resulting in the identification of 48 key landscape source areas. Finally, the MCR model was applied to generate potential corridors, and a heritage corridor network was formed through the optimization of topological nodes. The results indicate that (1) the heritage network consists of 48 source areas and 151 corridors, forming a structure with “two vertical and one horizontal” main axes and a circular branch network; (2) spatial distribution of source areas and corridors exhibits aggregation in the central and western regions and sparsity in the southeast, closely aligning with the distribution of ethnic villages and high-value landscape areas; (3) the optimized corridor network significantly improves the connection efficiency and resilience of cultural nodes. This study provides a scientific foundation for the systematic conservation, spatial optimization, and sustainable development of cultural heritage in ethnic regions experiencing population shrinkage. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Renewal Design and Challenge of Urban and Rural Livable Environments in the Age of Population Shrinkage)

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Buildings, Volume 15, Issue 18 (September-2 2025) – 184 articles

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