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Volume 14
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10.3390/app142311094
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Article

Advanced Spectroscopic Characterization, Antioxidant and Antibacterial Activity Evaluation, and Trace Metal Analyses of Essential Oils from Star Anise, Nutmeg, Clove, Oregano, Bay Leaves, and Lemon Peel

by
Aleksandra Sander
1,*,
Maja Bival Štefan
2,
Antonela Radetić
1,
Ana Petračić
1,†,
Dajana Kučić Grgić
1,
Matija Cvetnić
1 and
Jelena Parlov Vuković
3
1
Faculty of Chemical Engineering and Technology, University of Zagreb, Trg Marka Marulića 19, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia
2
Faculty of Pharmacy and Biochemistry, University of Zagreb, A. Kovačića 1, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia
3
NMR Centre, Ruđer Bošković Institute, Bijenička cesta 54, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
†
Deceased author.
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14(23), 11094; https://doi.org/10.3390/app142311094
Submission received: 8 October 2024 / Revised: 26 November 2024 / Accepted: 27 November 2024 / Published: 28 November 2024
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Phytochemical Compounds and Antioxidant Activity)
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Abstract

Essential oils from star anise, nutmeg, clove buds, oregano, bay leaves, and lemon peel were extracted via hydrodistillation. GC-MS, UV–Vis, FTIR, and 1H NMR spectroscopy were used to identify the major compounds (trans-anethole, sabinene, eugenol, carvacrol, eucalyptol and limonene, for star anise, nutmeg, clove buds, oregano, bay leaves, and lemon peel essential oil, respectively), revealing that the spectra were dominated by the oils’ primary constituents. Antioxidant activity was assessed using DPPH and ABTS assays, demonstrating high radical scavenging ability, especially for bay leaf and oregano oils. Despite phenolic content being correlated with antioxidant activity, discrepancies were found, suggesting that non-phenolic compounds and synergism also play a role. Antibacterial evaluation showed significant activity for bay leaf and oregano oils, particularly against Klebsiella pneumoniae and Pseudomonas aeruginosa, due to phenolic and terpene compounds. The presence of trace metals in the oils, including those with antimicrobial and antioxidant properties such as Cu, and Zn, was also analyzed. The risk assessment showed that toxic metals were below harmful thresholds.
Keywords: essential oils; antioxidant; antimicrobial; GC-MS; FTIR; NMR; UV–Vis; metal content essential oils; antioxidant; antimicrobial; GC-MS; FTIR; NMR; UV–Vis; metal content

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MDPI and ACS Style

Sander, A.; Bival Štefan, M.; Radetić, A.; Petračić, A.; Kučić Grgić, D.; Cvetnić, M.; Parlov Vuković, J. Advanced Spectroscopic Characterization, Antioxidant and Antibacterial Activity Evaluation, and Trace Metal Analyses of Essential Oils from Star Anise, Nutmeg, Clove, Oregano, Bay Leaves, and Lemon Peel. Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 11094. https://doi.org/10.3390/app142311094

AMA Style

Sander A, Bival Štefan M, Radetić A, Petračić A, Kučić Grgić D, Cvetnić M, Parlov Vuković J. Advanced Spectroscopic Characterization, Antioxidant and Antibacterial Activity Evaluation, and Trace Metal Analyses of Essential Oils from Star Anise, Nutmeg, Clove, Oregano, Bay Leaves, and Lemon Peel. Applied Sciences. 2024; 14(23):11094. https://doi.org/10.3390/app142311094

Chicago/Turabian Style

Sander, Aleksandra, Maja Bival Štefan, Antonela Radetić, Ana Petračić, Dajana Kučić Grgić, Matija Cvetnić, and Jelena Parlov Vuković. 2024. "Advanced Spectroscopic Characterization, Antioxidant and Antibacterial Activity Evaluation, and Trace Metal Analyses of Essential Oils from Star Anise, Nutmeg, Clove, Oregano, Bay Leaves, and Lemon Peel" Applied Sciences 14, no. 23: 11094. https://doi.org/10.3390/app142311094

APA Style

Sander, A., Bival Štefan, M., Radetić, A., Petračić, A., Kučić Grgić, D., Cvetnić, M., & Parlov Vuković, J. (2024). Advanced Spectroscopic Characterization, Antioxidant and Antibacterial Activity Evaluation, and Trace Metal Analyses of Essential Oils from Star Anise, Nutmeg, Clove, Oregano, Bay Leaves, and Lemon Peel. Applied Sciences, 14(23), 11094. https://doi.org/10.3390/app142311094

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