Journal of Intelligence

17 pages, 694 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Do Confidence Ratings Reactively Modify Children’s Academic Assessment Performance? Negative Answer from a Three-Year Longitudinal Study

by Jun Zheng, Ningxin Su, Tian Fan, Baike Li, Wenbo Zhao, Xiao Hu, Chunliang Yang and Liang Luo

J. Intell. 2024, 12(9), 91; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence12090091 - 23 Sep 2024

Viewed by 423

Abstract

The reactivity effect of metacognitive judgments on first-order task performance has received increased research attention. Previous studies showed that soliciting retrospective confidence ratings (CRs) reactively enhances task performance itself, such as performance in decision making and reasoning tasks, especially for those with high [...] Read more.

The reactivity effect of metacognitive judgments on first-order task performance has received increased research attention. Previous studies showed that soliciting retrospective confidence ratings (CRs) reactively enhances task performance itself, such as performance in decision making and reasoning tasks, especially for those with high self-confidence. It remains unknown whether CRs can improve students’ academic assessment performance in real educational settings. The current study recruited 795 fourth-grade elementary school children to explore if making CRs reactively affects students’ academic assessment performance in two main subjects (i.e., Chinese Language and Mathematics). The data were collected across six waves with half-year intervals. From Wave 2, children either provided (CR group) or did not provide CRs (no-CR group) when completing standardized academic assessments. The results showed Bayesian evidence supporting the claim that making CRs does not influence children’s academic assessment performance (both the average performance across waves 2–6 and the performance in each wave) in both subjects. Furthermore, children’s self-confidence did not moderate the reactive influence of CRs. The results from multilevel regression analyses re-confirmed the above conclusions. Possible explanations for the absence of the reactivity effect of CRs on children’s academic assessment performance are discussed. Full article

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14 pages, 343 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Strategies Used by Puerto Rican Children in the Cognitive Assessment System and Their Relationship with Planning Performance

by Giselle Cordero-Arroyo, José A. Ramos-Carrasquillo, Imalay M. Cruz-Figueroa, Loggina Báez-Ávila, Manuel Gonzalez-Gonzalez, Mary A. Moreno-Torres and Mario E. Bermonti-Pérez

J. Intell. 2024, 12(9), 90; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence12090090 - 21 Sep 2024

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Abstract

Studies involving the Cognitive Assessment System (CAS) planning scale typically use only the subtest and scale scores without assessing the strategies employed by the participants. This study addressed this gap and examined the planning strategies used by children in the CAS2: Spanish version [...] Read more.

Studies involving the Cognitive Assessment System (CAS) planning scale typically use only the subtest and scale scores without assessing the strategies employed by the participants. This study addressed this gap and examined the planning strategies used by children in the CAS2: Spanish version and their relationship with planning performance. We conducted an exploratory cross-sectional study with 26 Puerto Rican children aged 8 to 11. Results showed that no strategies were consistently used by participants according to examinees’ reports (f = 0–46%), but examiners observed consistent use of some strategies such as “coded left to right, top to bottom”, f = 92%; “scanned the page for the next number or letter”, f = 100%. Welch’s t-tests did not show relationships between participants’ performance and the strategies observed by examiners, | mean differences | = 0.05–0.81, ps ≥ 0.05, nor with the strategies reported by participants, | mean differences | = 0.05–1.69, ps ≥ 0.05. These findings suggest that although the examiners may observe the use of strategies, the examinees are unaware of the strategies they use, and the strategies used are not associated with their performance. Future studies are needed to confirm these findings. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Neurocognitive Processes: Measurement, Connections to Academic Achievement and Clinical Applications)

15 pages, 1383 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Probabilistic Representation Differences between Decisions from Description and Decisions from Experience

by Dandan Nie, Zhujing Hu, Debiao Zhu and Jianyong Yang

J. Intell. 2024, 12(9), 89; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence12090089 - 20 Sep 2024

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Abstract

For mathematically identical risky decisions, different choices can be made depending on whether information about outcomes and their probabilities is learned by description or by experience, known as the description–experience gap. However, it is unclear whether different ways of obtaining information lead to [...] Read more.

For mathematically identical risky decisions, different choices can be made depending on whether information about outcomes and their probabilities is learned by description or by experience, known as the description–experience gap. However, it is unclear whether different ways of obtaining information lead to different representation forms of probability, resulting in a description–experience gap. The current study investigates the representation formats of the alternative options’ probability for decisions from description and decisions from experience. The experiments measured the relative error of probability estimation in percentage and frequency forms for the two types of decisions in low and medium-to-large probability situations. The results demonstrate that for decisions from description in medium-to-large probability scenarios, the estimation error was lower in percentage form than in frequency form, with equally near-perfect estimates in small-probability scenarios. Nevertheless, in decisions from experience, the accuracy of estimation in percentage form was lower than in frequency form in both low and medium-to-large probability situations. This suggests that decision makers in decisions from description tend to represent the probability information in percentage form. However, in decisions from experience, they tend to represent probability in frequency form. The utilization of different formats for probability representation is one of the factors that contribute to the description–experience gap. Full article

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26 pages, 1393 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Evidence for the Beneficial Effect of Reward on Working Memory: A Meta-Analytic Study

by Weiyu Wang, Xin Yan, Xinyu He and Jiehui Qian

J. Intell. 2024, 12(9), 88; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence12090088 - 11 Sep 2024

Viewed by 667

Abstract

Rewards act as external motivators and can improve performance in various cognitive tasks. However, previous research demonstrated mixed findings regarding the effect of reward on working memory (WM) performance, and the question of whether reward enhances WM performance is arguable. It remains unclear [...] Read more.

Rewards act as external motivators and can improve performance in various cognitive tasks. However, previous research demonstrated mixed findings regarding the effect of reward on working memory (WM) performance, and the question of whether reward enhances WM performance is arguable. It remains unclear how the effect of reward on WM can be influenced by various factors, such as types of reward and experimental paradigms. In this meta-analytic study, we systematically investigated the effect of reward on WM by analyzing data from 51 eligible studies involving a total of 1767 participants. Our results showed that reward robustly enhanced WM performance, with non-monetary rewards inducing more benefits than monetary rewards. This may be because, while both types of reward could induce extrinsic motivation, non-monetary rewards enhanced intrinsic motivation while monetary rewards reduced it. Notably, all three reward methods—reward binding, reward expectation, and subliminal reward—effectively improved WM performance, with the reward binding paradigm exhibiting the greatest effects. This finding suggests that the reward effect can be attributed to both increasing the total amount of WM resources and improving the flexibility of resource reallocation. Moreover, the type of WM, the experimental paradigms, and the outcome measures are three moderators that should be jointly considered when assessing the reward effects on WM. Overall, this meta-analytic study provides solid evidence that reward improves WM performance and reveals possible mechanisms underlying these improvements. Full article

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14 pages, 996 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Testing the Deliberate Practice Theory: Does Practice Reduce the Heritability of Musical Expertise?

by Miriam A. Mosing, Karin J. H. Verweij, David Z. Hambrick, Nancy L. Pedersen and Fredrik Ullén

J. Intell. 2024, 12(9), 87; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence12090087 - 8 Sep 2024

Viewed by 1428

Abstract

The deliberate practice (DP) theory claims that expertise essentially reflects the accumulated amount of deliberate practice, and that with sufficient practice, genetic influences on expertise will be bypassed. Thus, a core prediction of the DP theory is that genetic effects on performance decrease [...] Read more.

The deliberate practice (DP) theory claims that expertise essentially reflects the accumulated amount of deliberate practice, and that with sufficient practice, genetic influences on expertise will be bypassed. Thus, a core prediction of the DP theory is that genetic effects on performance decrease as a function of practice. Here, we test this prediction using music as a model domain. Musical expertise (measured with a musical auditory discrimination test) and lifetime practice hours were determined in 6471 twins including 1302 complete twin pairs. We fitted a bivariate Cholesky decomposition with practice hours as a moderator to determine to what extent genetic and environmental influences on musical expertise are influenced by practice hours. On average, 50% of individual differences in musical expertise were due to genetic influences, whereas shared environmental and residual influences each explained about 25%. Importantly, music practice significantly moderated these estimates. Variation in musical expertise decreased with more practice hours due to decreased shared environmental and residual variance. In contrast, the overall genetic component was unaffected by the number of practice hours. Consequently, the relative genetic contribution (heritability) increased with more practice hours. These findings are in contrast with predictions from the DP theory and suggest that genetic predisposition remains important for musical expertise even after prolonged practice. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Skill Acquisition, Expertise, and Achievement)

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20 pages, 1349 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Emotional Regulation Challenges in Chilean Teachers: An Analysis of the Measurement Invariance of the DERS-E and the Influence of Gender and Age

by Flavio Muñoz-Troncoso, Enrique Riquelme-Mella, Amy G. Halberstadt, Ignacio Montero, Valeria Sepúlveda-Bernales, Gerardo Fuentes-Vilugrón, Edgardo Miranda-Zapata, Ekaterina Legaz-Vladímisrkaya, Felipe Caamaño-Navarrete and Gerardo Muñoz-Troncoso

J. Intell. 2024, 12(9), 86; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence12090086 - 3 Sep 2024

Viewed by 697

Abstract

The study investigates the emotional dysregulation in teachers of the Chilean school system, focusing on gender and age similarities and differences. The sample included 1059 teachers from various regions of Chile, of whom 80.3% were female and 19.7% were male. Participants completed the [...] Read more.

The study investigates the emotional dysregulation in teachers of the Chilean school system, focusing on gender and age similarities and differences. The sample included 1059 teachers from various regions of Chile, of whom 80.3% were female and 19.7% were male. Participants completed the Spanish version of the Difficulties in Emotional Regulation Scale (DERS-E). A confirmatory factor analysis was carried out to evaluate the structure of the theoretical model, along with the convergent, discriminant, and internal consistency of the instrument. Additionally, a measurement invariance analysis was performed to identify possible differences between demographic groups, which is crucial to ensure that comparisons between these groups are valid and unbiased. The results indicated that the theoretical model presents a good fit to the data and confirms the validity and reliability of the DERS-E. Scalar invariance was achieved among the analyzed groups. We found significant differences in emotional dysregulation between men and women, which also varied by teacher age. The importance of understanding the specific needs of teachers in terms of their emotional regulation is discussed and the urgency of implementing training programs that improve their emotional skills, fostering a positive and effective learning environment, is highlighted. Full article

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15 pages, 1715 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Flexible Regulation of Positive and Negative Emotion Expression: Reexamining the Factor Structure of the Flexible Regulation of Emotional Expression Scale (FREE) Based on Emotion Valence

by Yanhua Zhao and Ping Wang

J. Intell. 2024, 12(9), 85; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence12090085 - 2 Sep 2024

Viewed by 487

Abstract

The Flexible Regulation of Emotional Expression (FREE) Scale assesses individuals’ ability to enhance and suppress their emotional expressions across different situations. This study investigates the optimal factor structure of the FREE and emphasizes the importance of distinguishing between the regulation abilities for positive [...] Read more.

The Flexible Regulation of Emotional Expression (FREE) Scale assesses individuals’ ability to enhance and suppress their emotional expressions across different situations. This study investigates the optimal factor structure of the FREE and emphasizes the importance of distinguishing between the regulation abilities for positive and negative expressions. A sample of 607 undergraduates (Mage = 19.02, SD = 1.02, 72.2% female) from Mainland China completed the questionnaire survey. Confirmatory factor analyses tested eight competing models of the FREE structure. Results indicated that the second-order model, featuring two higher-order factors (expressive enhancement and suppression abilities), fit the data well. An alternative second-order model, with two different higher-order factors (positive and negative emotion expressive abilities) and the same four first-order factors, demonstrated an even better fit. Various types of expressive ability scores showed predictive validity regarding emotion regulation self-efficacy, mental health outcomes, and relationship stress. Regulation of emotional expression can be represented by either regulation type or emotion valence, with the latter providing more informative insights. Flexible regulation of positive and negative emotion expression predicted fewer symptoms of depression, anxiety, stress, and relationship stress beyond emotion regulation self-efficacy. These findings highlight the importance of considering emotional valence in understanding flexibility in expression regulation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Social and Emotional Intelligence)

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14 pages, 340 KiB

Open AccessEditorial

A Special Issue Introduction: The Intersection of Metacognition and Intelligence

by Lisa K. Son and Hannah Hausman

J. Intell. 2024, 12(9), 84; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence12090084 - 31 Aug 2024

Viewed by 857

Abstract

What makes someone intelligent [...] Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Intersection of Metacognition and Intelligence)

14 pages, 1981 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Improvement in Math Ability and Cognitive Processing in Children with Low Attention: An Intervention Based on PASS Theory

by Dan Cai, Yongjing Ge, Lingling Wang and Ada W. S. Leung

J. Intell. 2024, 12(9), 83; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence12090083 - 29 Aug 2024

Viewed by 550

Abstract

This study investigates the effects of math training on math and cognitive performance among 8–9 year-old students with low attention. Fifty-six students with low attention were randomly assigned to a training group (n = 24) and a passive control group (n = 32). [...] Read more.

This study investigates the effects of math training on math and cognitive performance among 8–9 year-old students with low attention. Fifty-six students with low attention were randomly assigned to a training group (n = 24) and a passive control group (n = 32). They completed math problem-solving, calculation fluency and PASS cognitive processing tests both before and after training. The children in the training group received 3 days of training per week for a total of 21 days using the math modules of The Children’s Mathematics and Cognition Training Manual in Chinese. The results showed that the training group’s math problem-solving performance improved significantly. Moreover, the cognitive performance on the CAS-2 in the planning and simultaneous processing tests for the training group was enhanced. The implications of these findings are discussed with consideration of the interpretability being constrained by the fact that no active control condition was applied. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Neurocognitive Processes: Measurement, Connections to Academic Achievement and Clinical Applications)

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27 pages, 822 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Large-Scale Item-Level Analysis of the Figural Matrices Test in the Norwegian Armed Forces: Examining Measurement Precision and Sex Bias

by Fredrik Helland-Riise, Tore Nøttestad Norrøne and Björn Andersson

J. Intell. 2024, 12(9), 82; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence12090082 - 29 Aug 2024

Viewed by 542

Abstract

Figural matrices tests are common in intelligence research and have been used to draw conclusions regarding secular changes in intelligence. However, their measurement properties have seldom been evaluated with large samples that include both sexes. Using data from the Norwegian Armed Forces, we [...] Read more.

Figural matrices tests are common in intelligence research and have been used to draw conclusions regarding secular changes in intelligence. However, their measurement properties have seldom been evaluated with large samples that include both sexes. Using data from the Norwegian Armed Forces, we study the measurement properties of a test used for selection in military recruitment. Item-level data were available from 113,671 Norwegian adolescents (32% female) tested between the years 2011 and 2017. Utilizing item response theory (IRT), we characterize the measurement properties of the test in terms of difficulty, discrimination, precision, and measurement invariance between males and females. We estimate sex differences in the mean and variance of the latent variable and evaluate the impact of violations to measurement invariance on the estimated distribution parameters. The results show that unidimensional IRT models fit well in all groups and years. There is little difference in precision and test difficulty between males and females, with precision that is generally poor on the upper part of the scale. In the sample, male latent proficiency is estimated to be slightly higher on average, with higher variance. Adjusting for measurement invariance generally reduces the sex differences but does not eliminate them. We conclude that previous studies using the Norwegian GMA data must be interpreted with more caution but that the test should measure males and females equally fairly. Full article

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21 pages, 7339 KiB

Open AccessSystematic Review

Mirror, Mirror on the Wall: A Meta-Analysis on the Validity of Self-Assessed Intelligence through the Lens of the Multiverse

by Sabine Patzl, Sandra Oberleiter and Jakob Pietschnig

J. Intell. 2024, 12(9), 81; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence12090081 - 28 Aug 2024

Viewed by 771

Abstract

Examining the relationship between self-assessed intelligence (SAI) and psychometric intelligence (IQ) is essential for understanding how people’s self-evaluations reflect their actual intelligence. Various factors, such as SAI measurement methods, participant characteristics, and testing conditions have been hypothesized to moderate the SAI–IQ link, yet [...] Read more.

Examining the relationship between self-assessed intelligence (SAI) and psychometric intelligence (IQ) is essential for understanding how people’s self-evaluations reflect their actual intelligence. Various factors, such as SAI measurement methods, participant characteristics, and testing conditions have been hypothesized to moderate the SAI–IQ link, yet the generality of this association remains unclear. Here, we provide evidence for SAI and IQ associations based on 278 effect sizes from 115 independent samples (N = 36,833) using a multi-level meta-analysis, revealing a moderate positive correlation (r = 0.30; 95% CI [0.27, 0.33]). Multiverse analyses demonstrated remarkable stability of this effect, with most summary effect specifications yielding significant positive correlations (96%), averaging r = 0.32. Notably, ability domain and sample type emerged as significant moderators, with numerical ability showing stronger correlations compared to general cognitive, verbal, and spatial abilities. Importantly, our study found that correlations in student samples were significantly higher than those in general samples. Our findings show a moderate positive association of SAI with IQ, unaffected by participant sex, publication year, administration order, neuroticism, and self-assessment method, yet significantly moderated by ability domain and sample type. Our results illustrate the importance of feedback in educational settings to help students accurately assess their cognitive abilities. Full article

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23 pages, 3156 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Crossmodal Correspondence Mediates Crossmodal Transfer from Visual to Auditory Stimuli in Category Learning

by Ying Sun, Liansheng Yao and Qiufang Fu

J. Intell. 2024, 12(9), 80; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence12090080 - 28 Aug 2024

Viewed by 566

Abstract

This article investigated whether crossmodal correspondence, as a sensory translation phenomenon, can mediate crossmodal transfer from visual to auditory stimuli in category learning and whether multimodal category learning can influence the crossmodal correspondence between auditory and visual stimuli. Experiment 1 showed that the [...] Read more.

This article investigated whether crossmodal correspondence, as a sensory translation phenomenon, can mediate crossmodal transfer from visual to auditory stimuli in category learning and whether multimodal category learning can influence the crossmodal correspondence between auditory and visual stimuli. Experiment 1 showed that the category knowledge acquired from elevation stimuli affected the categorization of pitch stimuli when there were robust crossmodal correspondence effects between elevation and size, indicating that crossmodal transfer occurred between elevation and pitch stimuli. Experiments 2 and 3 revealed that the size category knowledge could not be transferred to the categorization of pitches, but interestingly, size and pitch category learning determined the direction of the pitch-size correspondence, suggesting that the pitch-size correspondence was not stable and could be determined using multimodal category learning. Experiment 4 provided further evidence that there was no crossmodal transfer between size and pitch, due to the absence of a robust pitch-size correspondence. These results demonstrated that crossmodal transfer can occur between audio-visual stimuli with crossmodal correspondence, and multisensory category learning can change the corresponding relationship between audio-visual stimuli. These findings suggest that crossmodal transfer and crossmodal correspondence share similar abstract representations, which can be mediated by semantic content such as category labels. Full article

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J. Intell., Volume 12, Issue 9 (September 2024) – 12 articles

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