Aerospace

16 pages, 4215 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Multi-Mode Interferometry: Application to TiO₂–SiO₂ Sol-Gel Waveguide-Based Sensing in the Aerospace Domain

by Maxime Royon, Thomas Blanchet, Muhammad Adnan, Damien Jamon, François Royer, Francis Vocanson, Emmanuel Marin, Adriana Morana, Aziz Boukenter, Youcef Ouerdane, Yves Jourlin, Rolf Evenblij, Thijs Van Leest, Aditya Wankhade, Marie-Anne De Smet, Kathryn Atherton and Sylvain Girard

Aerospace 2021, 8(12), 401; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace8120401 - 18 Dec 2021

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2692

Abstract

The optimization of a 2D optical sensor based on TiO₂–SiO₂ sol-gel waveguides for damage detection in the aerospace domain was performed in the framework of the ADD-ON European project. The sensor is based on the transportation of visible light along [...] Read more.

The optimization of a 2D optical sensor based on TiO₂–SiO₂ sol-gel waveguides for damage detection in the aerospace domain was performed in the framework of the ADD-ON European project. The sensor is based on the transportation of visible light along numerous waveguides, and damage is detected and localized through the monitoring of the output light from the waveguide grid. In this work, we have developed an architecture, inspired by a multi-mode interferometer (MMI), allowing us to efficiently multiply the number of waveguides that can be probed by a single optical source. For this, the beam propagation method (BPM) was used to model a rectangular MMI coupler (40 × 5624 µm²) operating in the visible region (600 nm), ensuring the propagation of light into three waveguides. The conceived device was then manufactured by UV photolithography (direct laser writing technique). The simulations and experimental results show that light transport into this architecture allows for the successful simultaneous probing of three waveguides. By complexifying the device structure, successful MMI couplers were easily manufactured, allowing us to probe 9, 15, or 45 TiO₂–SiO₂ waveguides with a unique light source. Finally, a further investigation regarding 24 consecutive thermal cycles from −40 °C to 60 °C, representative of the temperature changes during aircraft cruising, was performed. This study reveals that TiO₂–SiO₂ sol-gel waveguides are not mechanically damaged by temperature changes, while the light guidance remains unaffected, confirming that this sensor is very promising for aerospace applications. Since a single source can monitor several guides, the production of more compact, low-cost, and less intrusive sensors can be achieved by fulfilling structural health monitoring requirements. Full article

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14 pages, 7558 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Optimal Geno-Fuzzy Lateral Control of Powered Parachute Flying Vehicles

by Hanafy M. Omar

Aerospace 2021, 8(12), 400; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace8120400 - 17 Dec 2021

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 2859

Abstract

In this work, we propose a systematic procedure to design a fuzzy logic controller (FLC) to control the lateral motion of powered parachute (PPC) flying vehicles. The design process does not require knowing the details of vehicle dynamics. Moreover, the physical constraints of [...] Read more.

In this work, we propose a systematic procedure to design a fuzzy logic controller (FLC) to control the lateral motion of powered parachute (PPC) flying vehicles. The design process does not require knowing the details of vehicle dynamics. Moreover, the physical constraints of the system, such as the maximum error of the yaw angle and the maximum allowed steering angle, are naturally included in the designed controller. The effectiveness of the proposed controller was assessed using the nonlinear six degrees of freedom (6DOF) mathematical model of the PPC. The genetic algorithm (GA) optimization technique was used to optimize the distribution of the fuzzy membership functions in order to improve the performance of the suggested controller. The robustness of the proposed controller was evaluated by changing the values of the parafoil aerodynamic coefficients and the initial flight conditions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Aeronautics)

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12 pages, 3397 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Thermoplastic Mandrel for Manufacturing Composite Components with Complex Structure

by Xishuang Jing, Siyu Chen, Jiuzhi An, Chengyang Zhang and Fubao Xie

Aerospace 2021, 8(12), 399; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace8120399 - 16 Dec 2021

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 4027

Abstract

This study was to solve the mandrel demolding problem after curing the composite component with complex structure. In this paper, a reusable thermoplastic mandrel with heating softening characteristics was developed by resin transfer molding (RTM). The glass transition temperature (Tg), surface roughness, and [...] Read more.

This study was to solve the mandrel demolding problem after curing the composite component with complex structure. In this paper, a reusable thermoplastic mandrel with heating softening characteristics was developed by resin transfer molding (RTM). The glass transition temperature (Tg), surface roughness, and reusability of the mandrel, as well as the shape, surface roughness, thickness uniformity, and internal quality of the formed structure, were tested. The result showed that the Tg of the mandrel was between 80 and 90 °C and the surface roughness was less than Ra 0.5 μm. Additionally, the mandrel can be recycled and can still maintain a good shape after 20 times of deformation. By using this method, the demolding process can be realized by heating and softening the mandrel. The profile error of the formed structure was within 0.5 mm, the surface roughness was less than Ra 0.5 μm, the thickness error was within 0.2 mm, and the average porosity of the upper and lower halves of composite parts was 0.72% and 0.61%. All those data showed that the formed part was in good shape and of good quality. The thermoplastic mandrel can solve the demolding problem of composite materials with complex shapes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Aerospace Composite Materials)

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34 pages, 5525 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Multi-Fidelity Optimization of a Composite Airliner Wing Subject to Structural and Aeroelastic Constraints

by Angelos Kafkas, Spyridon Kilimtzidis, Athanasios Kotzakolios, Vassilis Kostopoulos and George Lampeas

Aerospace 2021, 8(12), 398; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace8120398 - 15 Dec 2021

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 3861

Abstract

Efficient optimization is a prerequisite to realize the full potential of an aeronautical structure. The success of an optimization framework is predominately influenced by the ability to capture all relevant physics. Furthermore, high computational efficiency allows a greater number of runs during the [...] Read more.

Efficient optimization is a prerequisite to realize the full potential of an aeronautical structure. The success of an optimization framework is predominately influenced by the ability to capture all relevant physics. Furthermore, high computational efficiency allows a greater number of runs during the design optimization process to support decision-making. The efficiency can be improved by the selection of highly optimized algorithms and by reducing the dimensionality of the optimization problem by formulating it using a finite number of significant parameters. A plethora of variable-fidelity tools, dictated by each design stage, are commonly used, ranging from costly high-fidelity to low-cost, low-fidelity methods. Unfortunately, despite rapid solution times, an optimization framework utilizing low-fidelity tools does not necessarily capture the physical problem accurately. At the same time, high-fidelity solution methods incur a very high computational cost. Aiming to bridge the gap and combine the best of both worlds, a multi-fidelity optimization framework was constructed in this research paper. In our approach, the low-fidelity modules and especially the equivalent-plate methodology structural representation, capable of drastically reducing the associated computational time, form the backbone of the optimization framework and a MIDACO optimizer is tasked with providing an initial optimized design. The higher fidelity modules are then employed to explore possible further gains in performance. The developed framework was applied to a benchmark airliner wing. As demonstrated, reasonable mass reduction was obtained for a current state of the art configuration. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue 11th EASN International Conference on Innovation in Aviation & Space to the Satisfaction of the European Citizens)

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19 pages, 2321 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A System Dynamics Prediction Model of Airport Environmental Carrying Capacity: Airport Development Mode Planning and Case Study

by Qiuping Peng, Lili Wan, Tianci Zhang, Zhan Wang and Yong Tian

Aerospace 2021, 8(12), 397; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace8120397 - 14 Dec 2021

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 3115

Abstract

Airport environmental carrying capacity (AECC) provides the fundamental conditions for airport development and operation activities. The prediction of AECC is a necessary condition for planning an appropriate development mode for the airport. This paper studies the dynamic prediction method of the AECC to [...] Read more.

Airport environmental carrying capacity (AECC) provides the fundamental conditions for airport development and operation activities. The prediction of AECC is a necessary condition for planning an appropriate development mode for the airport. This paper studies the dynamic prediction method of the AECC to explore the development characteristics of AECC in different airports. Based on the driving force-pressure-state-response (DPSR) framework, the method selects 17 main variables from economic, social, environmental and operational dimensions, and then combines the drawing of causal loop diagrams and the establishment of system flow diagrams to construct the system dynamics (SD) model of AECC. The predicted values of AECC are obtained through SD model simulation and accelerated genetic algorithm projection pursuit (AGA-PP) model calculation. Considering sustainable development needs, different scenarios are set to analyze the appropriate development mode of the airport. The case study of the Pearl River Delta airports resulted in two main conclusions. First, in the same economic zone, different airports with similar aircraft movements have similar development characteristics of AECC. Second, the appropriate development modes for different airports are different, and the appropriate development modes for the airport in different periods are also different. The case study also proves that the AECC prediction based on SD model and AGA-PP model can realize short-term policy formulation and long-term planning for the airport development mode, and provide decision-making support for relevant departments of airport. Full article

(This article belongs to the Collection Air Transportation—Operations and Management)

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20 pages, 9407 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Dynamic Burst Actuation to Enhance the Flow Control Authority of Plasma Actuators

by Takuto Ogawa, Kengo Asada, Satoshi Sekimoto, Tomoaki Tatsukawa and Kozo Fujii

Aerospace 2021, 8(12), 396; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace8120396 - 13 Dec 2021

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 3380

Abstract

A computational study was conducted on flows over an NACA0015 airfoil with dielectric barrier discharge (DBD) plasma. The separated flows were controlled by a DBD plasma actuator installed at the 5% chord position from the leading edge, where operated AC voltage was modulated [...] Read more.

A computational study was conducted on flows over an NACA0015 airfoil with dielectric barrier discharge (DBD) plasma. The separated flows were controlled by a DBD plasma actuator installed at the 5% chord position from the leading edge, where operated AC voltage was modulated with the duty cycle not given a priori but dynamically changed based on the flow fluctuations over the airfoil surface. A single-point pressure sensor was installed at the 40% chord position of the airfoil surface and the DBD plasma actuator was activated and deactivated based on the strength of the measured pressure fluctuations. The Reynolds number was set to 63,000 and flows at angles of attack of 12 and 16 degrees were considered. The three-dimensional compressible Navier–Stokes equations including the DBD plasma actuator body force were solved using an implicit large-eddy simulation. Good flow control was observed, and the burst frequency proven to be effective in previous fixed burst frequency studies is automatically realized by this approach. The burst frequency is related to the characteristic pressure fluctuation; our approach was improved based on the findings. This improved approach realizes the effective burst frequency with a lower control cost and is robust to changing the angle of attack. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Large Eddy Simulation in Aerospace Engineering)

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22 pages, 1700 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Multi-Objective and Multi-Phase 4D Trajectory Optimization for Climate Mitigation-Oriented Flight Planning

by Alessio Vitali, Manuela Battipede and Angelo Lerro

Aerospace 2021, 8(12), 395; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace8120395 - 13 Dec 2021

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 3538

Abstract

Aviation contribution to global warming and anthropogenic climate change is increasing every year. To reverse this trend, it is crucial to identify greener alternatives to current aviation technologies and paradigms. Research in aircraft operations can provide a swift response to new environmental requirements, [...] Read more.

Aviation contribution to global warming and anthropogenic climate change is increasing every year. To reverse this trend, it is crucial to identify greener alternatives to current aviation technologies and paradigms. Research in aircraft operations can provide a swift response to new environmental requirements, being easier to exploit on current fleets. This paper presents the development of a multi-objective and multi-phase 4D trajectory optimization tool to be integrated within a Flight Management System of a commercial aircraft capable of performing 4D trajectory tracking in a Free Route Airspace context. The optimization algorithm is based on a Chebyshev pseudospectral method, adapted to perform a multi-objective optimization with the two objectives being the Direct Operating Cost and the climate cost of a climb-cruise-descent trajectory. The climate cost function applies the Global Warming Potential metric to derive a comprehensive cost index that includes the climate forcing produced by CO₂ and non-CO₂ emissions, and by the formation of aircraft-induced clouds. The output of the optimization tool is a set of Pareto-optimal 4D trajectories among which the aircraft operator can choose the best solution that satisfies both its economic and environmental goals. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Aerospace Guidance, Navigation and Control)

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15 pages, 8294 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Strength Evaluation and Failure Analysis of the Vortex Reducer under Overspeed Condition

by Mengdi Ma, Dasheng Wei, Yanrong Wang, Di Li and Hui Zhang

Aerospace 2021, 8(12), 394; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace8120394 - 13 Dec 2021

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2548

Abstract

Rotating parts of aeroengines need to have a high speed margin according to the civil aviation airworthiness regulations. Previous studies on burst speed are based on mechanical properties of standard specimens. In this paper, a new method for predicting burst speed by means [...] Read more.

Rotating parts of aeroengines need to have a high speed margin according to the civil aviation airworthiness regulations. Previous studies on burst speed are based on mechanical properties of standard specimens. In this paper, a new method for predicting burst speed by means of a tensile test of a simulative specimen is proposed, and the predicted results are compared with the traditional method. The results show that the stress gradient of the designed simulative specimen and the assessment location of vortex reducer are in good agreement, which indicates that they have similar stress characteristics. The burst speed predicted by the new method is greater than the traditional method. Both prediction methods can provide a reference for such a structure in the design stage. In addition, the overspeed test of a vortex reducer is carried out, and the results verify that it still has sufficient strength reserves at 120% relative speed. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Aeronautics)

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13 pages, 4573 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Design of a High Uniformity Laser Sheet Optical System for Particle Image Velocimetry

by Kewei Yin, Jun Zhang and Shuang Chen

Aerospace 2021, 8(12), 393; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace8120393 - 10 Dec 2021

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 3441

Abstract

Particle image velocimetry (PIV) is a non-contact, instantaneous and full-flow velocity measurement method based on cross-correlation analysis of particle image. It is widely used in fluid mechanics and aerodynamics. Laser sheet optical system is one of the key equipment of PIV, and it [...] Read more.

Particle image velocimetry (PIV) is a non-contact, instantaneous and full-flow velocity measurement method based on cross-correlation analysis of particle image. It is widely used in fluid mechanics and aerodynamics. Laser sheet optical system is one of the key equipment of PIV, and it is an important guarantee to obtain high definition particle image. In the PIV measurement task of large low speed wind tunnel, in order to solve the problem of sheet light illumination uniformity of large size model and take into account the requirements of PIV technology on the thickness of the sheet light, a hybrid algorithm is used to design a high uniformity laser sheet optical system based on the theory of physical optics. The simulation results show that the size of the sheet light is 400 mm × 1 mm, the diffraction efficiency reaches 97.77%, and the non-uniformity is only 0.03%. It is helpful to acquire high-resolution images of particles in the full field of view. It also can be applied to a series of non-contact flow field measurement techniques such as plane laser induced fluorescence, filtered Rayleigh scattering and two-color plane laser induced fluorescence temperature measurement. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Flow Diagnostic Tools)

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25 pages, 4628 KiB

Open AccessReview

Challenges and Solutions for High-Speed Aviation Piston Pumps: A Review

by Chenchen Zhang, Chenhang Zhu, Bin Meng and Sheng Li

Aerospace 2021, 8(12), 392; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace8120392 - 10 Dec 2021

Cited by 26 | Viewed by 8811

Abstract

As a core power component, aviation piston pumps are widely used in aircraft hydraulic systems. The piston pump’s power-to-weight ratio is extremely crucial in the aviation industry, and the “ceiling effect” of the PV value (product of compressive stress and linear velocity) limits [...] Read more.

As a core power component, aviation piston pumps are widely used in aircraft hydraulic systems. The piston pump’s power-to-weight ratio is extremely crucial in the aviation industry, and the “ceiling effect” of the PV value (product of compressive stress and linear velocity) limits the piston pump’s ability to increase working pressure. Therefore, increasing the piston pump’s speed has been a real breakthrough in terms of further enhancing the power-to-weight ratio. However, the piston pump’s design faces several challenges under the extreme operating conditions at high speeds. This study reviews several problems aviation axial piston pumps face under high-speed operating conditions, including friction loss, cavitation, cylinder overturning, flow pressure pulsation, and noise. It provides a detailed description of the research state of the art of these problems and potential solutions. The axial piston pump’s inherent sliding friction pair, according to the report, considerably restricts further increasing of its speed and power-to-weight ratio. With its mature technology and deep research base, the axial piston pump will continue to dominate the aviation pumps. Furthermore, breaking the limitation of the sliding friction pair on speed and power density, thus innovating a novel structure of the piston pump, is also crucial. Therefore, this study also elaborates on the working principle and development process of the two-dimensional (2D) piston pump, which is a representative of current high-speed pump structure innovation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Aeronautics)

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14 pages, 2617 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Aircraft Assembly Snags: Human Errors or Lack of Production Design?

by Ageel Abdulaziz Alogla and Mansoor Alruqi

Aerospace 2021, 8(12), 391; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace8120391 - 10 Dec 2021

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 4348

Abstract

To err is an intrinsic human trait, which means that human errors, at some point, are inevitable. Business improvement tools and practices neglect to deal with the root causes of human error; hence, they ignore certain design considerations that could possibly prevent or [...] Read more.

To err is an intrinsic human trait, which means that human errors, at some point, are inevitable. Business improvement tools and practices neglect to deal with the root causes of human error; hence, they ignore certain design considerations that could possibly prevent or minimise such errors from occurring. Recognising this gap, this paper seeks to conceptualise a model that incorporates cognitive science literature based on a mistake-proofing concept, thereby offering a deeper, more profound level of human error analysis. An exploratory case study involving an aerospace assembly line was conducted to gain insights into the model developed. The findings of the case study revealed four different causes of human errors, as follows: (i) description similarity error, (ii) capture errors, (iii) memory lapse errors, and (iv) interruptions. Based on this analysis, error-proofing measures have been proposed accordingly. This paper lays the foundation for future work on the psychology behind human errors in the aerospace industry and highlights the importance of understanding human errors to avoid quality issues and rework in production settings, where labour input is of paramount importance. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Aircraft Fault Detection)

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18 pages, 11921 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Development of a Flight Test Platform to Study the Body Freedom Flutter of BWB Flying Wings

by Pengtao Shi, Feng Liu, Yingsong Gu and Zhichun Yang

Aerospace 2021, 8(12), 390; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace8120390 - 10 Dec 2021

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 3458

Abstract

A flight test platform is designed to conduct an experimental study on the body freedom flutter of a BWB flying wing, and a flight test is performed by using the proposed platform. A finite element model of structural dynamics is built, and unsteady [...] Read more.

A flight test platform is designed to conduct an experimental study on the body freedom flutter of a BWB flying wing, and a flight test is performed by using the proposed platform. A finite element model of structural dynamics is built, and unsteady aerodynamics and aeroelastic characteristics of the flying wing are analyzed by the doublet lattice method and g-method, respectively. Based on the foregoing analyses, a low-cost and low-risk flying-wing test platform is designed and manufactured. Then, the ground vibration test is implemented, and according to its results, the structural dynamics model is updated. The flight test campaign shows that the body freedom flutter occurs at low flight speed, which is consistent with the updated analytical result. Finally, an active flutter suppression controller is designed using a genetic algorithm for the developed flying wing for future tests, considering the gains and sensor location as design parameters. The open- and closed-loop analyses in time- and frequency-domain analyses demonstrate that the designed controller can improve the instability boundary of the closed-loop system effectively. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Flutter Phenomena – Modeling, Identification and Control)

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20 pages, 11979 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Oil Fumes, Flight Safety, and the NTSB

by Judith Anderson and Dieter Scholz

Aerospace 2021, 8(12), 389; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace8120389 - 10 Dec 2021

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 8177

Abstract

During its investigations into a series of ten aircraft crashes from 1979 to 1981, US National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB) officials were presented with a hypothesis that “several” of the crashes could have been caused by pilot impairment from breathing oil fumes inflight. [...] Read more.

During its investigations into a series of ten aircraft crashes from 1979 to 1981, US National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB) officials were presented with a hypothesis that “several” of the crashes could have been caused by pilot impairment from breathing oil fumes inflight. The NTSB and their industry partners ultimately dismissed the hypothesis. The authors reviewed the crash reports, the mechanics of the relevant engine oil seals, and some engine bleed air data to consider whether the dismissal was justified. Four of the nine aircraft crash reports include details which are consistent with pilot impairment caused by breathing oil fumes. None of the tests of ground-based bleed air measurements of a subset of oil-based contaminants generated in the engine type on the crashed aircraft reproduced the inflight conditions that the accident investigators had flagged as potentially unsafe. The NTSB’s conclusion that the hypothesis of pilot incapacitation was “completely without validity” was inconsistent with the evidence. Parties with a commercial conflict of interest should not have played a role in the investigation of their products. There is enough evidence that pilots can be impaired by inhaling oil fumes to motivate more stringent design, operation, and reporting regulations to protect safety of flight. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Aircraft Design (SI-3/2021))

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16 pages, 4583 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Comparison of the Aircraft Noise Calculation Programs sonAIR, FLULA2 and AEDT with Noise Measurements of Single Flights

by Jonas Meister, Stefan Schalcher, Jean-Marc Wunderli, David Jäger, Christoph Zellmann and Beat Schäffer

Aerospace 2021, 8(12), 388; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace8120388 - 10 Dec 2021

Cited by 20 | Viewed by 3862

Abstract

As aircraft noise affects large areas around airports, noise exposure calculations need to be highly accurate. In this study, we compare noise exposure measurements with calculations of several thousand single flights at Zurich and Geneva airports, Switzerland, of three aircraft noise calculation programs: [...] Read more.

As aircraft noise affects large areas around airports, noise exposure calculations need to be highly accurate. In this study, we compare noise exposure measurements with calculations of several thousand single flights at Zurich and Geneva airports, Switzerland, of three aircraft noise calculation programs: sonAIR, a next-generation aircraft noise calculation program, and the two current best-practice programs FLULA2 and AEDT. For one part of the flights, we had access to flight data recorder (FDR) data, which contain flight configuration information that sonAIR can account for. For the other part, only radar data without flight configuration information were available. Overall, all three programs show good results, with mean differences between calculations and measurements smaller than ±0.5 dB in the close range of the airports. sonAIR performs clearly better than the two best-practice programs if FDR data are available. However, in situations without FDR data (reduced set of input data), sonAIR cannot exploit its full potential and performs similarly well as FLULA2 and AEDT. In conclusion, all three programs are well suited to determine averaged noise metrics resulting from complex scenarios consisting of many flights (e.g., yearly air operations), while sonAIR is additionally capable to highly accurately reproduce single flights in greater detail. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Aircraft Noise)

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33 pages, 78560 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Simplified FE Modeling Strategy for the Drop Process Simulation Analysis of Light and Small Drone

by Yongjie Zhang, Yingjie Huang, Zhiwen Li, Ke Liang, Kang Cao and Yazhou Guo

Aerospace 2021, 8(12), 387; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace8120387 - 9 Dec 2021

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 5245

Abstract

The numerical accuracy of drop process simulation and collision response for drones is primarily determined by the finite element modeling method and simplified method of drone airframe structure. For light and small drones exhibiting diverse shapes and configurations, mixed materials and structures, deformation [...] Read more.

The numerical accuracy of drop process simulation and collision response for drones is primarily determined by the finite element modeling method and simplified method of drone airframe structure. For light and small drones exhibiting diverse shapes and configurations, mixed materials and structures, deformation and complex destruction behaviors, the way of developing a reasonable and easily achieved high-precision simplified modeling method by ensuring the calculation accuracy and saving the calculation cost has aroused increasing concern in impact dynamics simulation. In the present study, the full-size modeling and simplified modeling methods that are specific to different components of a relatively popular light and small drone were analyzed in an LS-DYNA software environment. First, a full-size high-precision model of the drone was built, and the model accuracy was verified by performing the drop tests at the component level as well as the whole machine level. Subsequently, based on the full-size high-precision model, the property characteristics of the main components of the light and small drone and their common simplification methods were classified, a series of simplified modeling methods for different components were developed, several single simplified models and combined simplified models were built, and a method to assess the calculation error of the peak impact load in the simplified models was proposed. Lastly, by comparing and analyzing the calculation accuracy of various simplified models, the high-precision simplified modeling strategy was formulated, and the suggestions were proposed for the impact dynamics simulation of the light and small drone falling. Given the analysis of the calculation scale and solution time of the simplified model, the high-precision simplified modeling method developed here is capable of noticeably reducing the modeling difficulty, the solution scale and the calculation time while ensuring the calculation accuracy. Moreover, it shows promising applications in several fields (e.g., structure design, strength analysis and impact process simulation of drone). Full article

(This article belongs to the Collection Unmanned Aerial Systems)

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18 pages, 5775 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Investigation of a Portable Wind Tunnel for Energy Harvesting

by Haigang Tian, Tianyi Hao, Chao Liu, Han Cao and Xiaobiao Shan

Aerospace 2021, 8(12), 386; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace8120386 - 9 Dec 2021

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 3741

Abstract

Current wind tunnels possess a large space volume and high manufacturing cost, which are not suitable for investigating micro energy harvesters. This paper aims to design and fabricate a small, portable and low-speed wind tunnel for energy harvesting. A wind tunnel structure was [...] Read more.

Current wind tunnels possess a large space volume and high manufacturing cost, which are not suitable for investigating micro energy harvesters. This paper aims to design and fabricate a small, portable and low-speed wind tunnel for energy harvesting. A wind tunnel structure was first designed, a finite element analyses is then utilized to obtain the airflow velocity and turbulence intensity at the testing section, and the influence of the structural parameters of the wind tunnel on the flow field performance is finally investigated to achieve better performance. An experimental prototype of the wind tunnel was fabricated to verify the simulation results. Results demonstrated that the distribution uniformity and average turbulence intensity at the test section decrease first and then increase with the increase of both the diffuser and contraction lengths. The rectifying and damping effect of the honeycomb increase with increasing porosity and thickness. When the diffuser and contraction lengths are 850 mm and 480 mm, respectively, a better distribution uniformity and a lower turbulence intensity can be achieved. Experimental results were in good agreement with the simulation values. The maximum airflow velocity can reach up to 24.74 m/s, and the minimum error was only 1.23%. The designed wind tunnel achieved low-speed, small, portable and stable functions. This work provides an important guidance for further investigating the piezoelectric energy harvesting. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Aeronautics)

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13 pages, 3257 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Burn Time Correction of Start-Up Transients for CAMUI Type Hybrid Rocket Engine

by Tor Viscor, Hikaru Isochi, Naoto Adachi and Harunori Nagata

Aerospace 2021, 8(12), 385; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace8120385 - 9 Dec 2021

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2780

Abstract

Burn time errors caused by various start-up transient effects have a significant influence on the regression modelling of hybrid rockets. Their influence is especially pronounced in the simulation model of the Cascaded Multi Impinging Jet (CAMUI) hybrid rocket engine. This paper analyses these [...] Read more.

Burn time errors caused by various start-up transient effects have a significant influence on the regression modelling of hybrid rockets. Their influence is especially pronounced in the simulation model of the Cascaded Multi Impinging Jet (CAMUI) hybrid rocket engine. This paper analyses these transient burn time errors and their effect on the regression simulations for short burn time engines. To address these errors, the equivalent burn time is introduced and is defined as the time the engine would burn if it were burning at its steady-state level throughout the burn time to achieve the measured total impulse. The accuracy of the regression simulation with and without the use of equivalent burn time is then finally compared. Equivalent burn time is shown to address the burn time issue successfully for port regression and, therefore, also for other types of cylindrical port hybrid rocket engines. For the CAMUI-specific impinging jet fore-end and back-end surfaces, though, the results are inconclusive. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Hybrid Rocket(Volume II))

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22 pages, 43436 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Rope-Hook Recovery Controller Designed for a Flying-Wing UAV

by Zhao Deng, Fuqiang Bing, Zhiming Guo and Liaoni Wu

Aerospace 2021, 8(12), 384; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace8120384 - 7 Dec 2021

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 4056

Abstract

Due to the complexity of landing environments, precision guidance and high-precision control technology have become key to the rope-hook recovery of shipborne unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs). The recovery process was divided into three stages and a reasonable guidance strategy had been designed for [...] Read more.

Due to the complexity of landing environments, precision guidance and high-precision control technology have become key to the rope-hook recovery of shipborne unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs). The recovery process was divided into three stages and a reasonable guidance strategy had been designed for them, respectively. This study separated the guidance and control issues into an outer guidance loop and an inner control loop. The inner loop (attitude control loop) controled the UAV to follow the acceleration commands generated by the outer loop (trajectory tracking loop). The inner loop of the longitudinal controller and the lateral controller were designed based on active disturbance rejection control (ADRC), which has strong anti-interference ability. In the last phase, the outer loop of the longitudinal controller switched from a total energy control system (TECS), which greatly decoupled the altitude channel and speed channel, to the proportional navigation (PN) guidance law, while the outer loop of lateral controller switches from the proportional control law based on the L₁ guidance law, which can reduce the tracking error and deviation, to the PN guidance law, which considerably enhances the tracking precision. Finally, the simulation data and flight test data show that the controller has strong robustness and good tracking precision, which ensures safe rope-hook recovery. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Aeronautics)

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18 pages, 5724 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Controller Fatigue State Detection Based on ES-DFNN

by Haijun Liang, Changyan Liu, Kuanming Chen, Jianguo Kong, Qicong Han and Tiantian Zhao

Aerospace 2021, 8(12), 383; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace8120383 - 7 Dec 2021

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 3032

Abstract

The fatiguing work of air traffic controllers inevitably threatens air traffic safety. Determining whether eyes are in an open or closed state is currently the main method for detecting fatigue in air traffic controllers. Here, an eye state recognition model based on deep-fusion [...] Read more.

The fatiguing work of air traffic controllers inevitably threatens air traffic safety. Determining whether eyes are in an open or closed state is currently the main method for detecting fatigue in air traffic controllers. Here, an eye state recognition model based on deep-fusion neural networks is proposed for determination of the fatigue state of controllers. This method uses transfer learning strategies to pre-train deep neural networks and deep convolutional neural networks and performs network fusion at the decision-making layer. The fused network demonstrated an improved ability to classify the target domain dataset. First, a deep-cascaded neural network algorithm was used to realize face detection and eye positioning. Second, according to the eye selection mechanism, the pictures of the eyes to be tested were cropped and passed into the deep-fusion neural network to determine the eye state. Finally, the PERCLOS indicator was combined to detect the fatigue state of the controller. On the ZJU, CEW and ATCE datasets, the accuracy, F1 score and AUC values of different networks were compared, and, on the ZJU and CEW datasets, the recognition accuracy and AUC values among different methods were evaluated based on a comparative experiment. The experimental results show that the deep-fusion neural network model demonstrated better performance than the other assessed network models. When applied to the controller eye dataset, the recognition accuracy was 98.44%, and the recognition accuracy for the test video was 97.30%. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Controlling Speech Understanding and Air Traffic Safety Enhancement Based on AI)

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16 pages, 3408 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Thermal Effect on the Instability of Annular Liquid Jet

by Xiao Cui and Boqi Jia

Aerospace 2021, 8(12), 382; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace8120382 - 7 Dec 2021

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2571

Abstract

The linear instability of an annular liquid jet with a radial temperature gradient in an inviscid gas steam is investigated theoretically. A physical model of an annular liquid jet with a radial temperature gradient is established, dimensionless governing equations and boundary conditions are [...] Read more.

The linear instability of an annular liquid jet with a radial temperature gradient in an inviscid gas steam is investigated theoretically. A physical model of an annular liquid jet with a radial temperature gradient is established, dimensionless governing equations and boundary conditions are given, and numerical solutions are obtained using the spectral collocation method. The correctness of the results is verified to a certain extent. The liquid surface tension coefficient is assumed to be a linear function of temperature. The effects of various dimensionless parameters (including the Marangoni number/Prandtl number, Reynolds number, temperature gradient, Weber number, gas-to-liquid density ratio and velocity ratio) on the instability of the annular liquid jet are discussed. A decreasing Weber number destabilizes the annular liquid jet when the Weber number is lower than a critical value. It is found that the effects of the Marangoni effect are related to the Weber number. The Marangoni effect enhances instability when the Weber number is small, while the Marangoni effect weakens instability when the Weber number is large. In addition, because the thermal effect is considered, a decreasing Reynolds number enhances the instability when the Weber number is lower than a critical value, which is similar to the results of a viscous liquid sheet with a temperature difference between two planar surfaces. Furthermore, the effects of other dimensionless parameters are also investigated. Full article

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29 pages, 5472 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Dynamic Modeling and Analysis of Impact in Space Operation Tasks

by Yaxing Cai, Yujun Chen, Yazhong Luo and Xinglong Wang

Aerospace 2021, 8(12), 381; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace8120381 - 6 Dec 2021

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2492

Abstract

For the rigid impact and flexible impact in space operation tasks, impact dynamic models between two objects are established in this paper, laying the model foundation for controlling or suppressing the impact. For the capture task between a grapple shaft and a rigid [...] Read more.

For the rigid impact and flexible impact in space operation tasks, impact dynamic models between two objects are established in this paper, laying the model foundation for controlling or suppressing the impact. For the capture task between a grapple shaft and a rigid body, the impact dynamic model is established based on the Zhiying–Qishao model. Moreover, by introducing a friction factor into the original impact model, an improved dynamic model between two rigid bodies is proposed. For the capture task with flexible impact, an impact dynamic model between the grapple shaft and a flexible wire rope is established based on the dynamic model of the flexible wire rope. The ground experiments and simulations are carried out with two objects on an air flow table. The experiment results validate the impact dynamic model proposed in this paper. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Aeronautics)

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16 pages, 11035 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Prediction and Validation of Landing Stability of a Lunar Lander by a Classification Map Based on Touchdown Landing Dynamics’ Simulation Considering Soft Ground

by Yeong-Bae Kim, Hyun-Jae Jeong, Shin-Mu Park, Jae Hyuk Lim and Hoon-Hee Lee

Aerospace 2021, 8(12), 380; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace8120380 - 6 Dec 2021

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 3854

Abstract

In this paper, a method for predicting the landing stability of a lunar lander by a classification map of the landing stability is proposed, considering the soft soil characteristics and the slope angle of the lunar surface. First, the landing stability condition in [...] Read more.

In this paper, a method for predicting the landing stability of a lunar lander by a classification map of the landing stability is proposed, considering the soft soil characteristics and the slope angle of the lunar surface. First, the landing stability condition in terms of the safe (=stable), sliding (=unstable), and tip-over (=statically unstable) possibilities was checked by dropping a lunar lander onto flat lunar surfaces through finite-element (FE) simulation according to the slope angle, friction coefficient, and soft/rigid ground, while the vertical touchdown velocity was maintained at 3 m/s. All of the simulation results were classified by a classification map with the aid of logistic regression, a machine-learning classification algorithm. Finally, the landing stability status was efficiently predicted by Monte Carlo (MC) simulation by just referring to the classification map for 10,000 input datasets, consisting of the friction coefficient, slope angles, and rigid/soft ground. To demonstrate the performance, two virtual lunar surfaces were employed based on a 3D terrain map of the LRO mission. Then, the landing stability was validated through landing simulation of an FE model of a lunar lander requiring high computation cost. The prediction results showed excellent agreement with those of landing simulations with a negligible computational cost of around a few seconds. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Vibration Control for Space Application)

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2 pages, 161 KiB

Open AccessEditorial

Special Issue “Technologies for Future Distributed Engine Control Systems”

by Radoslaw Przysowa

Aerospace 2021, 8(12), 379; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace8120379 - 6 Dec 2021

Viewed by 2223

Abstract

Current trends in aviation greatly expand the use of highly integrated, increasingly autonomous air vehicles, with distributed engine control systems (DECS) [...] Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Technologies for Future Distributed Engine Control Systems)

10 pages, 4436 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Aerodynamic Performance of a Coaxial Hex-Rotor MAV in Hover

by Yao Lei, Jiading Wang and Wenjie Yang

Aerospace 2021, 8(12), 378; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace8120378 - 5 Dec 2021

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 3067

Abstract

Micro aerial vehicles (MAVs) usually suffer from several challenges, not least of which are unsatisfactory hover efficiency and limited fly time. This paper discusses the aerodynamic characteristics of a novel Hex-rotor MAV with a coaxial rotor capable of providing higher thrust in a [...] Read more.

Micro aerial vehicles (MAVs) usually suffer from several challenges, not least of which are unsatisfactory hover efficiency and limited fly time. This paper discusses the aerodynamic characteristics of a novel Hex-rotor MAV with a coaxial rotor capable of providing higher thrust in a compact structure. To extend the endurance during hover, flow field analysis and aerodynamic performance optimization are conducted by both experiments and numerical simulations with different rotor spacing ratios (i = 0.56, 0.59, 0.63, 0.67, 0.71, 0.77, 0.83, 0.91). The measured parameters are thrust, power, and hover efficiency during the experiments. Re_tip ranged from 0.7 × 10⁵ to 1.3 × 10⁵ is also studied by Spalart–Allmaras simulations. The test results show that the MAV has the optimum aerodynamic performance at i = 0.56 with Re_tip = 0.85 × 10⁵. Compared to the MAV with i = 0.98 for Re_tip = 0.85 × 10⁵, thrust is increased by 5.18% with a reduced power of 3.8%, and hover efficiency is also improved by 12.14%. The simulated results indicate a weakness in inter-rotor interference with the increased rotor spacing. Additionally, the enlarged pressure difference, reduced turbulence, and weakened vortices are responsible for the aerodynamic improvement. This provides an alternative method for increasing the MAV fly time and offers inspiration for future structural design. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Aerodynamic Shape Optimization for Aerospace Engineering Applications)

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24 pages, 2507 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Sensitivity-Based Non-Linear Model Predictive Control for Aircraft Descent Operations Subject to Time Constraints

by Ramon Dalmau, Xavier Prats and Brian Baxley

Aerospace 2021, 8(12), 377; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace8120377 - 4 Dec 2021

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2660

Abstract

The ability to meet a controlled time of arrival while also flying a continuous descent operation will enable environmentally friendly and fuel efficient descent operations while simultaneously maintaining airport throughput. Previous work showed that model predictive control, a guidance strategy based on a [...] Read more.

The ability to meet a controlled time of arrival while also flying a continuous descent operation will enable environmentally friendly and fuel efficient descent operations while simultaneously maintaining airport throughput. Previous work showed that model predictive control, a guidance strategy based on a reiterated update of the optimal trajectory during the descent, provides excellent environmental impact mitigation figures while meeting operational constraints in the presence of modeling errors. Despite that, the computational delay associated with the solution of the trajectory optimization problem could lead to performance degradation and stability issues. This paper proposes two guidance strategies based on the theory of neighboring extremals that alleviate this problem. Parametric sensitivities are obtained by linearization of the necessary conditions of optimality along the active optimal trajectory plan to rapidly update it for small perturbations, effectively converting the complex and time consuming non-linear programming problem into a manageable quadratic programming problem. Promising results, derived from more than 4000 simulations, show that the performance of this method is comparable to that of instantaneously recalculating the optimal trajectory at each time sample. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Closing the Gap in Aircraft Trajectories: Enhancing Optimization and Prediction Approaches)

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19 pages, 2994 KiB

Open AccessArticle

GA Optimization of Variable Angle Tow Composites in Buckling and Free Vibration Analysis through Layerwise Theory

by Nasim Fallahi

Aerospace 2021, 8(12), 376; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace8120376 - 3 Dec 2021

Cited by 14 | Viewed by 3288

Abstract

In the current research, variable angle tow composites are used to improve the buckling and free vibration behavior of a structure. A one-dimensional (1D) Carrera Unified Formulation (CUF) is employed to determine the buckling loads and natural frequencies in Variable Angle Tow (VAT) [...] Read more.

In the current research, variable angle tow composites are used to improve the buckling and free vibration behavior of a structure. A one-dimensional (1D) Carrera Unified Formulation (CUF) is employed to determine the buckling loads and natural frequencies in Variable Angle Tow (VAT) square plates by taking advantage of the layerwise theory (LW). Subsequently, the Genetic Algorithm (GA) optimization method is applied to maximize the first critical buckling load and first natural frequency using the definition of linear fiber orientation angles. To show the power of the genetic algorithm for the VAT structure, a surrogate model using Response Surface (RS) method was used to demonstrate the convergence of the GA approach. The results showed the cost reduction for optimized VAT performance through GA optimization in combination with the 1D CUF procedure. Additionally, a Latin hypercube sampling (LHS) method with RS was used for buckling analysis. The capability of LHS sampling confirmed that it could be employed for the next stages of research along with GA. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Control and Optimization Problems in Aerospace Engineering)

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19 pages, 2260 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Statistical Analysis of Dynamic Subgrid Modeling Approaches in Large Eddy Simulation

by Mohammad Khalid Hossen, Asokan Mulayath Variyath and Jahrul M. Alam

Aerospace 2021, 8(12), 375; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace8120375 - 3 Dec 2021

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 2921

Abstract

In large eddy simulation (LES) of turbulent flows, dynamic subgrid models would account for an average cascade of kinetic energy from the largest to the smallest scales of the flow. Yet, it is unclear which of the most critical dynamical processes can ensure [...] Read more.

In large eddy simulation (LES) of turbulent flows, dynamic subgrid models would account for an average cascade of kinetic energy from the largest to the smallest scales of the flow. Yet, it is unclear which of the most critical dynamical processes can ensure the criterion mentioned above. Furthermore, evidence of vortex stretching being the primary mechanism of the cascade is not out of the question. In this article, we study essential statistical characteristics of vortex stretching. Our numerical results demonstrate that vortex stretching rate provides the energy dissipation rate necessary for modeling subgrid-scale turbulence. We have compared the interaction of subgrid stresses with the filtered quantities among four models using invariants of the velocity gradient tensor. The individual and the joint probability of vortex stretching and strain amplification show that vortex stretching rate is highly correlated with the energy cascade rate. Sheet-like flow structures are correlated with viscous dissipation, and vortex tubes are more stretched than compressed. The overall results indicate that the stretching mechanism extracts energy from the large-scale straining motion and passes it onto small-scale stretched vortices. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Large Eddy Simulation in Aerospace Engineering)

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15 pages, 8468 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Method for Aero-Engine Gas Path Anomaly Detection Based on Markov Transition Field and Multi-LSTM

by Langfu Cui, Chaoqi Zhang, Qingzhen Zhang, Junle Wang, Yixuan Wang, Yan Shi, Cong Lin and Yang Jin

Aerospace 2021, 8(12), 374; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace8120374 - 2 Dec 2021

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 3347

Abstract

There are some problems such as uncertain thresholds, high dimension of monitoring parameters and unclear parameter relationships in the anomaly detection of aero-engine gas path. These problems make it difficult for the high accuracy of anomaly detection. In order to improve the accuracy [...] Read more.

There are some problems such as uncertain thresholds, high dimension of monitoring parameters and unclear parameter relationships in the anomaly detection of aero-engine gas path. These problems make it difficult for the high accuracy of anomaly detection. In order to improve the accuracy of aero-engine gas path anomaly detection, a method based on Markov Transition Field and LSTM is proposed in this paper. The correlation among high-dimensional QAR data is obtained based on Markov Transition Field and hierarchical clustering. According to the correlation analysis of high-dimensional QAR data, a multi-input and multi-output LSTM network is constructed to realize one-step rolling prediction. A Gaussian mixture model of the residuals between predicted value and true value is constructed. The three-sigma rule is applied to detect outliers based on the Gaussian mixture model of the residuals. The experimental results show that the proposed method has high accuracy for aero-engine gas path anomaly detection. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Aeronautics)

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24 pages, 2252 KiB

Open AccessArticle

An Unsteady Model for Aircraft Icing Based on Tightly-Coupled Method and Phase-Field Method

by Hao Dai, Chengxiang Zhu, Ning Zhao, Chunling Zhu and Yufei Cai

Aerospace 2021, 8(12), 373; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace8120373 - 1 Dec 2021

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 2880

Abstract

An unsteady tightly-coupled icing model is established in this paper to solve the numerical simulation problem of unsteady aircraft icing. The multi-media fluid of air and droplets is regarded as a single medium fluid with variable material properties. Taking the droplet concentration as [...] Read more.

An unsteady tightly-coupled icing model is established in this paper to solve the numerical simulation problem of unsteady aircraft icing. The multi-media fluid of air and droplets is regarded as a single medium fluid with variable material properties. Taking the droplet concentration as the phase parameter and the droplet resistance coefficient as the interphase force, the mass concentration distribution of the droplet is obtained by solving the Cahn–Hilliard equation. Fick’s law is introduced to improve the Cahn–Hilliard equation to predict the droplet shadow zone. On this basis, the procedure of the unsteady numerical simulation method for aircraft icing is established, including grid generation, the dual-time-step method to realize the unsteady calculation of the air and droplet tightly-coupled mixed flow field, and the improved shallow water icing model. Finally, through the comparative analysis of numerical examples, the effectiveness of the new model in predicting the droplet impact characteristics and the droplet shadow zone are verified. Compared with other icing models, the ice shapes predicted by the unsteady tightly-coupled model were found to be the most consistent with the experiments. In the icing comparison conditions in this manuscript, the prediction accuracy of the ice thickness at the stagnation point of the leading edge was up to 35% higher than that of LEWICE. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Aeronautics)

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17 pages, 4697 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Design and Simulation of a Flexible Bending Actuator for Solar Sail Attitude Control

by Meilin Liu, Zihao Wang, Daiki Ikeuchi, Junyu Fu and Xiaofeng Wu

Aerospace 2021, 8(12), 372; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace8120372 - 1 Dec 2021

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 3445

Abstract

This paper presents the design of a flexible bending actuator using shape memory alloy (SMA) and its integration in attitude control for solar sailing. The SMA actuator has advantages in its power-to-weight ratio and light weight. The bending mechanism and models of the [...] Read more.

This paper presents the design of a flexible bending actuator using shape memory alloy (SMA) and its integration in attitude control for solar sailing. The SMA actuator has advantages in its power-to-weight ratio and light weight. The bending mechanism and models of the actuator were designed and developed. A neural network based adaptive controller was implemented to control the non-linear nature of the SMA actuator. The actuator control modules were integrated into the solar sail attitude model with a quaternion PD controller that formed a cascade control. The feasibility and performance of the proposed actuator for attitude control were investigated and evaluated, showing that the actuator could generate 1.5 × 10⁻³ Nm torque which maneuvered a 1600 m² CubeSat based solar sail by 45° in 14 h. The results demonstrate that the proposed SMA bending actuator can be effectively integrated in attitude control for solar sailing under moderate external disturbances using an appropriate controller design, indicating the potential of a lighter solar sail for future missions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Astronautics & Space Science)

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Aerospace, Volume 8, Issue 12 (December 2021) – 45 articles

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