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Volume 6
Issue 4
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Languages, Volume 6, Issue 4 (December 2021) – 60 articles

Cover Story (view full-size image): Speech evolves with age from early adulthood to old age. Age-related changes can originate from various sources (physiological, cognitive, social) and are not necessarily associated with decline. We present a multidimensional acoustic report describing variation as a function of age of the speech productions of 500 Francophones (20 to 93 y.o.a.). Results confirm that with increasing age, speakers show more voice instability, sex-dependent pitch changes, slower speech and articulation rates, and less complexity effects in maximal performance tasks. A notable finding is that some of these changes are continuous throughout adulthood, while others appear either at old age or in early adulthood. We discuss these results in relation to the notion of attrition and other possible factors at play in an attempt to better capture the multidimensional nature of the notion of "age". View this paper
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22 pages, 3752 KiB  
Article
Multiple Stakeholder Interaction to Enhance Preservice Teachers’ Language Assessment Literacy
by Jiyoon Lee, Yuko Goto Butler and Xiaolin Peng
Languages 2021, 6(4), 213; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages6040213 - 20 Dec 2021
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 3629
Abstract
Conducted in a U.S. English-to-Speakers-of-Other-Languages (ESOL) preservice teacher education program, this case study aimed to explore a dynamic process of preservice teachers’ development of language assessment literacy (LAL). By inviting multiple stakeholders, namely preservice teachers, an inservice teacher and her ESOL students, and [...] Read more.
Conducted in a U.S. English-to-Speakers-of-Other-Languages (ESOL) preservice teacher education program, this case study aimed to explore a dynamic process of preservice teachers’ development of language assessment literacy (LAL). By inviting multiple stakeholders, namely preservice teachers, an inservice teacher and her ESOL students, and their course instructor, this study closely examined the interaction among the stakeholders during a semester-long language assessment development project as a process to develop LAL. The project, which was composed of planning, development, implementation, and reflection stages, was innovative in that it: (a) involved the multiple stakeholders; (b) focused on their dynamic interactions and multi-directional influences on all the participants’ enhancement of LAL; and (c) was conducted in an online format. By employing thematic analyses on interactions among the stakeholders, this study described and analyzed how preservice teachers contextualize their assessment while negotiating the needs of the inservice teachers and their students with assistance from the course instructor. The paper identified practical benefits and challenges of professional training where multiple stakeholders are involved. It also highlighted the non-linear dynamic process of preservice teachers’ development of LAL. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Developments in Language Testing and Assessment)
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5 pages, 287 KiB  
Editorial
Advances in Research on Morphosyntax and Multicompetent Speakers of French and Spanish: Introduction to the Special Issue
by Aarnes Gudmestad
Languages 2021, 6(4), 212; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages6040212 - 20 Dec 2021
Viewed by 2081
Abstract
Historically, research on language acquisition among multicompetent speakers has devoted significant attention to the area of morphosyntax, compared to other domains of language (Ortega 2009, p [...] Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Morphosyntactic Structures in French and Spanish: Advances in Research on Multicompetent Speakers)
24 pages, 3379 KiB  
Article
A Longitudinal Study of Speech Acoustics in Older French Females: Analysis of the Filler Particle euh across Utterance Positions
by Susanne Fuchs, Laura L. Koenig and Annette Gerstenberg
Languages 2021, 6(4), 211; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages6040211 - 20 Dec 2021
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 3713
Abstract
Aging in speech production is a multidimensional process. Biological, cognitive, social, and communicative factors can change over time, stay relatively stable, or may even compensate for each other. In this longitudinal work, we focus on stability and change at the laryngeal and supralaryngeal [...] Read more.
Aging in speech production is a multidimensional process. Biological, cognitive, social, and communicative factors can change over time, stay relatively stable, or may even compensate for each other. In this longitudinal work, we focus on stability and change at the laryngeal and supralaryngeal levels in the discourse particle euh produced by 10 older French-speaking females at two times, 10 years apart. Recognizing the multiple discourse roles of euh, we divided out occurrences according to utterance position. We quantified the frequency of euh, and evaluated acoustic changes in formants, fundamental frequency, and voice quality across time and utterance position. Results showed that euh frequency was stable with age. The only acoustic measure that revealed an age effect was harmonics-to-noise ratio, showing less noise at older ages. Other measures mostly varied with utterance position, sometimes in interaction with age. Some voice quality changes could reflect laryngeal adjustments that provide for airflow conservation utterance-finally. The data suggest that aging effects may be evident in some prosodic positions (e.g., utterance-final position), but not others (utterance-initial position). Thus, it is essential to consider the interactions among these factors in future work and not assume that vocal aging is evident throughout the signal. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Aging- and Disease-related Changes in Speech Production)
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25 pages, 433 KiB  
Article
Assessing Writing in French-as-a-Foreign-Language: Teacher Practices and Learner Uptake
by Eva Thue Vold
Languages 2021, 6(4), 210; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages6040210 - 17 Dec 2021
Viewed by 3300
Abstract
Formative assessment and adaptive instruction have been focus areas in Norwegian educational policy for more than a decade. Writing instruction in the language subjects is no exception; assessment of writing should help the learners improve their writing skills and, thus, feedback must be [...] Read more.
Formative assessment and adaptive instruction have been focus areas in Norwegian educational policy for more than a decade. Writing instruction in the language subjects is no exception; assessment of writing should help the learners improve their writing skills and, thus, feedback must be adapted to the individual learner’s needs. The present study aims to shed light on the relations between teacher feedback practices and learner uptake in French-as-a-foreign-language upper secondary classes in Norway. Using material from a longitudinal corpus of learner texts, including teacher feedback (the TRAWL corpus), the study investigates the written feedback practices of three L3 French teachers, and explores whether any signs of uptake can be identified in 27 learners’ new pieces of writings. The findings show that although the teachers followed best practice principles for formative assessment and written corrective feedback, less than half of the students showed any signs of uptake in subsequent pieces of writing. With one exception, these were students with an intermediate-high to very high proficiency level in French. The study emphasises the importance of strategies that could encourage learners to use the feedback they receive, thus moving the centre of attention from teacher practices to learner activities. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Developments in Language Testing and Assessment)
23 pages, 503 KiB  
Article
Modeling Heritage Language Phonetics and Phonology: Toward an Integrated Multilingual Sound System
by David Natvig
Languages 2021, 6(4), 209; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages6040209 - 14 Dec 2021
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 3968
Abstract
Although heritage language phonology is often argued to be fairly stable, heritage language speakers often sound noticeably different from both monolinguals and second-language learners. In order to model these types of asymmetries, I propose a theoretical framework—an integrated multilingual sound system—based on modular [...] Read more.
Although heritage language phonology is often argued to be fairly stable, heritage language speakers often sound noticeably different from both monolinguals and second-language learners. In order to model these types of asymmetries, I propose a theoretical framework—an integrated multilingual sound system—based on modular representations of an integrated set of phonological contrasts. An examination of general findings in laryngeal (voicing, aspiration, etc.) phonetics and phonology for heritage languages shows that procedures for pronouncing phonemes are variable and plastic, even if abstract may representations remain stable. Furthermore, an integrated multilingual sound system predicts that use of one language may require a subset of the available representations, which illuminates the mechanisms that underlie phonological transfer, attrition, and acquisition. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Heritage Speaker Phonetics and Phonology: Testing Models and Expanding the Range of Data)
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18 pages, 1596 KiB  
Article
Korean Learners’ Acquisition and Use of Variable First-Person Subject Forms in Spanish
by Avizia Y. Long
Languages 2021, 6(4), 208; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages6040208 - 13 Dec 2021
Viewed by 2438
Abstract
Within the scope of research that lies at the intersection of sociolinguistics and second language acquisition, there is a growing body of empirical work on learners’ acquisition of variable subject expression in Spanish. This research has been instrumental for demonstrating that second language [...] Read more.
Within the scope of research that lies at the intersection of sociolinguistics and second language acquisition, there is a growing body of empirical work on learners’ acquisition of variable subject expression in Spanish. This research has been instrumental for demonstrating that second language (L2) learners acquire linguistic and social constraints on subject form use. The present study extends research on variable Spanish subject expression to an understudied learner population: native Korean-speaking learners. Interview data were examined for the range and frequency of first-person subject forms produced by Korean-speaking learners at four instructional levels as well as linguistic and individual (extralinguistic) predictors of subject use. Results showed that learners at each level produced primarily null subjects, and verb number, verb-form regularity, verb semantics, and use of Spanish outside of class significantly predicted use of an overt personal pronoun over null subjects. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Morphosyntactic Structures in French and Spanish: Advances in Research on Multicompetent Speakers)
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25 pages, 2267 KiB  
Article
The Role of Prosody and Morphology in the Mapping of Information Structure onto Syntax
by Laura Colantoni and Liliana Sánchez
Languages 2021, 6(4), 207; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages6040207 - 13 Dec 2021
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 3979
Abstract
The mapping of information structure onto morphology or intonation varies greatly crosslinguistically. Agglutinative languages, like Inuktitut or Quechua, have a rich morphological layer onto which discourse-level features are mapped but a limited use of intonation. Instead, English or Spanish lack grammaticalized morphemes that [...] Read more.
The mapping of information structure onto morphology or intonation varies greatly crosslinguistically. Agglutinative languages, like Inuktitut or Quechua, have a rich morphological layer onto which discourse-level features are mapped but a limited use of intonation. Instead, English or Spanish lack grammaticalized morphemes that convey discourse-level information but use intonation to a relatively large extent. We propose that the difference found in these two pairs of languages follows from a division of labor across language modules, such that two extreme values of the continuum of possible interactions across modules are available as well as combinations of morphological and intonational markers. At one extreme, in languages such as Inuktitut and Quechua, a rich set of morphemes with scope over constituents convey sentence-level and discourse-level distinctions, making the alignment of intonational patterns and information structure apparently redundant. At the other extreme, as in English and to some extent Spanish, a series of consistent alignments of PF and syntactic structure are required to distinguish sentence types and to determine the information value of a constituent. This results in a complementary distribution of morphology and intonation in these languages. In contact situations, overlap between patterns of module interaction are attested. Evidence from Quechua–Spanish and Inuktitut–English bilinguals supports a bidirectionality of crosslinguistic influence; intonational patterns emerge in non-intonational languages to distinguish sentence types, whereas morphemes or discourse particles emerge in intonational languages to mark discourse-level features. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Phonology-Syntax Interface and Recursivity)
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28 pages, 2699 KiB  
Article
Variable Future-Time Expression in Spanish: A Comparison between Heritage and Second Language Learners
by Ana de Prada Pérez, Inmaculada Gómez Soler and Nick Feroce
Languages 2021, 6(4), 206; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages6040206 - 10 Dec 2021
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2912
Abstract
This paper examines the expression of futurity in Spanish, specifically the periphrastic future (PF), the morphological future (MF), and the present indicative (PI) in heritage language learners (HLLs) and second language learners (L2 learners), a comparison that allowed us to explore whether linguistic [...] Read more.
This paper examines the expression of futurity in Spanish, specifically the periphrastic future (PF), the morphological future (MF), and the present indicative (PI) in heritage language learners (HLLs) and second language learners (L2 learners), a comparison that allowed us to explore whether linguistic experience provides HLLs an advantage over L2 learners in the domain of morphosyntax. These forms (PF, MF, and PI) are regulated by certainty, temporal distance, and the presence of temporal adverbials. Previous research showed that L2 learners acquire some of these linguistic constraints and that HLLs tend to reduce the MF to modal uses. Data from a contextualized acceptability judgment task completed by 46 HLLs and 42 L2ers manipulated for verb form, certainty, temporal distance, and adverb and revealed that (i) the PF and the MF were generally rated higher than the PI, (ii) HLLs were sensitive to the three linguistic factors examined, while the L2ers’ sensitivity was modulated by proficiency, and, relatedly, (iii) the two groups differed in the effect of proficiency. For the L2 learners, an increase in proficiency led to a closer pattern to that of monolingual native speakers (only for temporal distance). Differences in exposure to and instruction in Spanish are discussed as possible sources of these differences. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Morphosyntactic Structures in French and Spanish: Advances in Research on Multicompetent Speakers)
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16 pages, 472 KiB  
Article
Researching the Complexities of the School Subject Swedish as a Second Language: A Linguistic Ethnographic Project in Four Schools
by Christina Hedman and Ulrika Magnusson
Languages 2021, 6(4), 205; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages6040205 - 10 Dec 2021
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 3030
Abstract
This article focuses on language education policy for language learners in Sweden by building on a synthesis of findings from a research project on the school subject Swedish as a second language (SSL). The project was located in three upper secondary schools and [...] Read more.
This article focuses on language education policy for language learners in Sweden by building on a synthesis of findings from a research project on the school subject Swedish as a second language (SSL). The project was located in three upper secondary schools and one primary school with a large proportion of migrant students, of whom a majority studied SSL. We present previously published core findings, as well as revisit data for new analyses. The overarching aim is to contribute new knowledge on the complexities of arranging for sustainable, equitable and high-quality language educational provisions that include the teaching and learning of the language of schooling, through the lens of SSL. First, we outline and discuss the relatively unique design of SSL and discourses surrounding the subject, and also make some international comparisons with English as an Additional Language. Secondly, we discuss the role of pedagogical scaffolding of advanced literacy and literary content, and of multilingual aspects in SSL, as well as examine policy frictions in the data. We conclude by reflecting on the role of teacher competences and research methodology. Researching a second language subject is to stand in the crossroad of macro policy, the theory and practice of language education, and equity. All these aspects need to be considered to reach sustainable educational goals. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Perspectives on Swedish as a Second Language)
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23 pages, 2333 KiB  
Article
Policy in Practice: Teachers’ Conceptualizations of L2 English Oral Proficiency as Operationalized in High-Stakes Test Assessment
by Liliann Byman Frisén, Pia Sundqvist and Erica Sandlund
Languages 2021, 6(4), 204; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages6040204 - 9 Dec 2021
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 4168
Abstract
Assessment of foreign/second language (L2) oral proficiency is known to be complex and influenced by the local context. In Sweden, extensive assessment guidelines for the National English Speaking Test (NEST) are offered to teachers, who act as raters of their own students’ performances [...] Read more.
Assessment of foreign/second language (L2) oral proficiency is known to be complex and influenced by the local context. In Sweden, extensive assessment guidelines for the National English Speaking Test (NEST) are offered to teachers, who act as raters of their own students’ performances on this high-stakes L2 English oral proficiency (OP) test. Despite guidelines, teachers commonly construct their own NEST scoring rubric. The present study aims to unveil teachers-as-raters’ conceptualizations, as these emerge from the self-made scoring rubrics, and possible transformations of policy. Data consist of 20 teacher-generated scoring rubrics used for assessing NEST (years 6 and 9). Rubrics were collected via personal networks and online teacher membership groups. Employing content analysis, data were analysed qualitatively to examine (i) what OP sub-skills were in focus for assessment, (ii) how sub-skills were conceptualized, and (iii) scoring rubric design. Results showed that the content and design of rubrics were heavily influenced by the official assessment guidelines, which led to broad consensus about what to assess—but not about how to assess. Lack of consensus was particularly salient for interactive skills. Analysis of policy transformations revealed that teachers’ self-made templates, in fact, lead to an analytic rather than a holistic assessment practice. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Developments in Language Testing and Assessment)
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21 pages, 412 KiB  
Article
Students’ Perceptions of Involvement in the Assessment of Oral Competence in English as a Second Language
by Lise Vikan Sandvik and Oda Aasmundstad Sommervold
Languages 2021, 6(4), 203; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages6040203 - 8 Dec 2021
Viewed by 3739
Abstract
This mixed-method study examined students’ perceptions of involvement in the assessment practice of oral competence in English in Norwegian upper secondary schools. Student involvement in assessment can be seen as a key factor when it comes to enhancing students’ learning outcome and motivation. [...] Read more.
This mixed-method study examined students’ perceptions of involvement in the assessment practice of oral competence in English in Norwegian upper secondary schools. Student involvement in assessment can be seen as a key factor when it comes to enhancing students’ learning outcome and motivation. Previous research has, however, shown that student involvement and the assessment of oral competence in English as a second language classes have been challenging. Surveys (N = 116) and two focus group interviews (N = 8) were used. The findings revealed that the students wanted to be more involved in the assessment practice. Moreover, the students saw this increased involvement as a way to enhance their oral competence in English. The students expressed uncertainty as to what they were assessed by. The implications of this study suggest that increased involvement in developing goals and criteria and more dialogue-based feedback are beneficial measures for strengthening students’ learning outcomes. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Developments in Language Testing and Assessment)
21 pages, 412 KiB  
Article
Conceptions of Assessment as an Integral Part of Language Learning: A Case Study of Finnish and Chinese University Students
by Magdalini Liontou
Languages 2021, 6(4), 202; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages6040202 - 7 Dec 2021
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 4091
Abstract
Assessment is viewed as an internal and pivotal part of learning, where cultural factors, previous experiences, and future aspirations affect learners’ perceptions. In recent years, an increasing number of western universities have established their campuses or “dual” programmes in China. In the first [...] Read more.
Assessment is viewed as an internal and pivotal part of learning, where cultural factors, previous experiences, and future aspirations affect learners’ perceptions. In recent years, an increasing number of western universities have established their campuses or “dual” programmes in China. In the first Sino–Finnish programme, 293 Finnish and Chinese students participated in the same English for Specific Purposes (ESP) course. This study investigated students’ perceptions of assessment through an adapted version of the “Students’ Conceptions of Assessment” inventory, and it explored if the responses on each conception differ between the groups. The self-report inventory included statements based on four main conceptions of assessment: improvement, external factors, affect/benefit, and irrelevance, while open-ended questions were also included. The analysis of the open-ended questions raised the issues of teacher fairness, learner autonomy, and feedback. Additionally, differences appeared between the role of assessment and its relation to future aspirations, as well as the role of the parents. This study is a starting point for exploring the conceptions for distinct groups of students regarding assessment, providing a better understanding of students’ perceptions and discussing the implications for the language classroom. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Developments in Language Testing and Assessment)
26 pages, 997 KiB  
Article
Heritage Tagalog Phonology and a Variationist Framework of Language Contact
by Pocholo Umbal and Naomi Nagy
Languages 2021, 6(4), 201; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages6040201 - 6 Dec 2021
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 8081
Abstract
Heritage language variation and change provides an opportunity to examine the interplay of contact-induced and language-internal effects while extending the variationist framework beyond monolingual speakers and majority languages. Using data from the Heritage Language Variation and Change in Toronto Project, we illustrate this [...] Read more.
Heritage language variation and change provides an opportunity to examine the interplay of contact-induced and language-internal effects while extending the variationist framework beyond monolingual speakers and majority languages. Using data from the Heritage Language Variation and Change in Toronto Project, we illustrate this with a case study of Tagalog (r), which varies between tap, trill, and approximant variants. Nearly 3000 tokens of (r)-containing words were extracted from a corpus of spontaneous speech of 23 heritage speakers in Toronto and 9 homeland speakers in Manila. Intergenerational and intergroup analyses were conducted using mixed-effects modeling. Results showed greater use of the approximant among second-generation (GEN2) heritage speakers and those that self-report using English more. In addition, the distributional patterns remain robust and the approximant appears in more contexts. We argue that these patterns reflect an interplay between internal and external processes of change. We situate these findings within a framework for distinguishing sources of variation in heritage languages: internal change, identity marking and transfer from the dominant language. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Heritage Speaker Phonetics and Phonology: Testing Models and Expanding the Range of Data)
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19 pages, 873 KiB  
Article
What Can L2ers Tell Us about Codeswitching? Mood Selection in Spanish
by Nick Feroce, Ana de Prada Pérez and Lillian Kennedy
Languages 2021, 6(4), 200; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages6040200 - 3 Dec 2021
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2778
Abstract
An increasing amount of research shows that bilinguals that engage in codeswitching (CS) may show different patterns of usage and sensitivity to particular linguistic structures depending on community norms. Additionally, proficiency may play a different role in sensitivity to code-switched utterances depending on [...] Read more.
An increasing amount of research shows that bilinguals that engage in codeswitching (CS) may show different patterns of usage and sensitivity to particular linguistic structures depending on community norms. Additionally, proficiency may play a different role in sensitivity to code-switched utterances depending on speaker background, as well as the structure investigated. In this study, we aim to examine how bilinguals not exposed to CS in the community rate CS vs. unilingual sentences involving mood selection in Spanish. In an online acceptability judgment task (AJT), 20 Spanish L2ers rated sentences containing verbs in the indicative and subjunctive mood in restrictive relative clauses manipulated for the specificity of the antecedent in two separate sessions: a Spanish monolingual mode and a CS session. The L2ers did not show evidence of a CS effect and maintained a mood distinction according to the specificity of the antecedent both in unilingual and codeswitched sentences. These results are in contrast with the results previously reported for Spanish heritage speakers (HSs), where a CS effect is attested in the loss of preference for the subjunctive in nonspecific relative clauses in the CS vs. the monolingual Spanish condition. Additionally, this distinction is found at both lower and higher proficiency levels. The differences between these speakers and HSs are consistent with data from previous research on CS effects on phonology and Det–N switches. We argue that exposure to community norms is necessary for the acquisition of patterns not related exclusively to the grammaticality of switch junctures (I-language). Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Exploring the Syntactic Properties of Code-Switching)
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12 pages, 430 KiB  
Opinion
Understanding Language Attrition through Orthography
by Beatriz Bermúdez-Margaretto, Federico Gallo, Mikhail Pokhoday, Yury Shtyrov, Hamutal Kreiner and Andriy Myachykov
Languages 2021, 6(4), 199; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages6040199 - 2 Dec 2021
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 4548
Abstract
The decay in the proficiency of the native language (L1), known as first language attrition, is one of the least understood phenomena associated with the acquisition of a second language (L2). Indeed, the exact cause for the deterioration in L1 performance, be that [...] Read more.
The decay in the proficiency of the native language (L1), known as first language attrition, is one of the least understood phenomena associated with the acquisition of a second language (L2). Indeed, the exact cause for the deterioration in L1 performance, be that either the interference from L2 acquisition or the less frequent use of L1, still remains elusive. In this opinion paper, we focus on one largely understudied aspect of L1 attrition—namely, the erosion of the L1 orthographic knowledge under the influence of L2 orthography. In particular, we propose to study differences in orthographic processing between mono- and bilingual populations as an approach, which, in turn, will allow to address both cognitive and neurophysiological mechanisms underlying L1 attrition. We discuss relevant experimental paradigms, variable manipulations and appropriate research methods that may help disentangle the largely debated question of L2 interference vs. L1 disuse, clarifying the nature of the L1 orthographic attrition. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Cognitive Nature of Bilingual Reading)
22 pages, 746 KiB  
Article
New Perspectives on the Urban–Rural Dichotomy and Dialect Contact in the Arabic gələt Dialects in Iraq and South-West Iran
by Bettina Leitner
Languages 2021, 6(4), 198; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages6040198 - 30 Nov 2021
Viewed by 3182
Abstract
This paper reevaluates the ground on which the division into urban and rural gələt dialects, as spoken in Iraq and Khuzestan (south-western Iran), is built on. Its primary aim is to describe which features found in this dialect group can be described as [...] Read more.
This paper reevaluates the ground on which the division into urban and rural gələt dialects, as spoken in Iraq and Khuzestan (south-western Iran), is built on. Its primary aim is to describe which features found in this dialect group can be described as rural and which features tend to be modified or to emerge in urban contexts, and which tend to be retained. The author uses various methodical approaches to describe these phenomena: (i) a comparative analysis of potentially rural features; (ii) a case study of Ahvazi Arabic, a gələt dialect in an emerging urban space; and (iii) a small-scale sociolinguistic survey on overt rural features in Iraqi Arabic as perceived by native speakers themselves. In addition, previously used descriptions of urban gələt features as described for Muslim Baghdad Arabic are reevaluated and a new approach and an alternative analysis based on comparison with new data from other gәlәt dialects are proposed. The comparative analysis yields an overview of what has been previously defined as rural features and additionally discusses further features and their association with rural dialects. This contributes to our general understanding of the linguistic profile of the rural dialects in this geographic context. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Classification of Arabic Dialects: Traditional Approaches, New Proposals, and Methodological Problems)
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27 pages, 716 KiB  
Article
Function Words at the Interface: A Two-Tier Approach
by Tina Bögel
Languages 2021, 6(4), 197; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages6040197 - 29 Nov 2021
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 4061
Abstract
The distinction between function words and content words poses a challenge to theories of the syntax–prosody interface. On the one hand, function words are “ignored” by the mapping algorithms; that is, function words are not mapped to prosodic words. On the other hand, [...] Read more.
The distinction between function words and content words poses a challenge to theories of the syntax–prosody interface. On the one hand, function words are “ignored” by the mapping algorithms; that is, function words are not mapped to prosodic words. On the other hand, there are numerous accounts of function words which form prosodic words and can even be analysed as heads of larger prosodic units. Furthermore, function words seem to be a driving factor for the formation of prosodic structures in that they can largely be held accountable for the non-isomorphism between syntactic and prosodic constituency. This paper discusses these challenges with a focus on a particular function word, and the first-person nominative pronoun in Swabian, a Southern German dialect. By means of two corpus studies, it is shown that the pronoun occurs in two forms, the prosodic word [i:] and the enclitic [ə]. Depending on clause position and focus structure, the forms occur in complementary distribution. Occurrences of n-insertion allow for the establishment of a recursive prosodic word structure at the level of the phonological module. The findings support a new proposal in the form of a two-tier mapping approach to the interface between syntax and prosody. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Phonology-Syntax Interface and Recursivity)
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18 pages, 850 KiB  
Article
The Acquisition of Verbal Epistemic Stance Marking during Study Abroad: The Case of je pense in L2 French
by Pascale Leclercq
Languages 2021, 6(4), 196; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages6040196 - 29 Nov 2021
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2850
Abstract
Epistemic stance markers, such as je pense in French, take on a variety of discursive functions, ranging from asserting an opinion, indicating the source of information, and mitigating a claim, to pragmatic functions, such as gaining time for discourse planning. Previous research suggests [...] Read more.
Epistemic stance markers, such as je pense in French, take on a variety of discursive functions, ranging from asserting an opinion, indicating the source of information, and mitigating a claim, to pragmatic functions, such as gaining time for discourse planning. Previous research suggests that the epistemic marker je pense is mostly used in French conversation to express opinions and can be used as an indicator of the development of a learner’s assertiveness and pragmatic competence during a study abroad period. Using a functional approach, this paper seeks to find out the extent to which study abroad fosters the development of assertiveness and pragmalinguistic competence among L2 learners, through an analysis of stance marking in interview data from 26 Anglophone learners of French, who spent nine months abroad in a French-speaking country, and 10 French native speakers. The results show that learners are globally less assertive in their use of je pense than native speakers, particularly prior to departure, and that they develop pragmatic uses of je pense, thereby showing a development in their interactional strategies. Finally, the high inter-variability in the way learners used je pense suggests the importance of personal style. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Morphosyntactic Structures in French and Spanish: Advances in Research on Multicompetent Speakers)
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28 pages, 1415 KiB  
Article
Washback Effects of Diagnostic Assessment in Greek as an SL: Primary School Teachers’ Perceptions in Cyprus
by Maria Mitsiaki, Nansia Kyriakou, Despo Kyprianou, Chrysovalanti Giannaka and Pavlina Hadjitheodoulou
Languages 2021, 6(4), 195; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages6040195 - 26 Nov 2021
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 4242
Abstract
Washback of diagnostic tools targeted to young migrant learners has been an under-researched area in the language assessment field. This paper explores teachers’ perceptions on the Greek Diagnostic Language Assessment (GDLA) tool recently introduced into the SL preparatory classes of the Cyprus primary [...] Read more.
Washback of diagnostic tools targeted to young migrant learners has been an under-researched area in the language assessment field. This paper explores teachers’ perceptions on the Greek Diagnostic Language Assessment (GDLA) tool recently introduced into the SL preparatory classes of the Cyprus primary education. The tool’s implementation coincides with the launch of a new SL curriculum. The objective is fourfold: (1) to examine GDLA’s washback effects on teaching/assessment, (2) to investigate washback’s variability with respect to several contextual variables, (3) to collect feedback on the perceived credibility of the tool, and (4) to reflect on the use of the GDLA tool as a lever of instructional reform in support of curricular innovation. The study employs a mixed-methods approach and draws on (a) quantitative data (questionnaire, 234 informants) and (b) qualitative data (interviews, 6 participants). The results indicate a positive and quite strong washback on teaching and assessment. However, they bring to the surface several misconceptions on the purpose and the implementation of diagnostic assessment, pointing to gaps in the teachers’ assessment literacy. They also bring into play school administration constraints. Finally, they imply that a diagnostic assessment aligned to a context-sensitive curriculum may bind the test to positive washback. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Developments in Language Testing and Assessment)
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21 pages, 811 KiB  
Article
Training the Trainers in Language Assessment via Mentoring: Building Expertise to Promote Language Assessment Literacy of Ukrainian University Teachers
by Viktoriya Osidak, Olha Drahinda and Olga Kvasova
Languages 2021, 6(4), 194; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages6040194 - 26 Nov 2021
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 3001
Abstract
This mixed-methods study described a case of group-based informal mentoring, a conceptual model of which was aligned with an effective mentoring program found in the literature. The research questions that were addressed in the study included: (1) Will mentoring training, conducted within a [...] Read more.
This mixed-methods study described a case of group-based informal mentoring, a conceptual model of which was aligned with an effective mentoring program found in the literature. The research questions that were addressed in the study included: (1) Will mentoring training, conducted within a short (1-month) period, enable inexperienced presenters to develop and conduct an effective workshop in LTA? (2) In what way(s) has mentoring training impacted the mentees as prospective trainers in LTA? The training was implemented by one mentor and two mentees, with the immediate purpose to organize a platform to disseminate the results of an Erasmus+ staff mobility program. The data were collected via a questionnaire, a self-efficacy scale and reflection logs about the mentoring procedure, as well as the workshop in LTA conducted by the mentees with the purpose to enhance Ukrainian university teachers’ LAL. The outcome of the training reported a high success level of the workshop among 37 attendees. In addition, the participants of the mentoring training (n = 2) demonstrated improvement in their organizational skills and professional growth. The mentoring framework proved to be an effective strategy for implementing study objectives and can be recognized as a successful model for the promotion of language assessment literacy. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Developments in Language Testing and Assessment)
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18 pages, 449 KiB  
Article
Learner Development of a Morphosyntactic Feature in Argentina: The Case of vos
by Rebecca Pozzi
Languages 2021, 6(4), 193; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages6040193 - 24 Nov 2021
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2696
Abstract
Students have been found to improve their sociolinguistic competence, particularly regarding the acquisition of dialectal features, while studying abroad. Nevertheless, most of the research on learner development of morphosyntactic features in Spanish-speaking immersion contexts has examined that of variants characteristic of Peninsular Spanish [...] Read more.
Students have been found to improve their sociolinguistic competence, particularly regarding the acquisition of dialectal features, while studying abroad. Nevertheless, most of the research on learner development of morphosyntactic features in Spanish-speaking immersion contexts has examined that of variants characteristic of Peninsular Spanish in Spain, namely clitics and the informal second-person plural vosotros. Since the informal second-person singular, vos, is more prevalent than its equivalent, tú, in several Latin American countries, learner acquisition of this feature also merits investigation. This article explores second-language learner production of vos among 23 English speakers during a 5-month semester in Buenos Aires, Argentina, a popular study abroad destination. The findings from the multivariate analysis of over 1200 tokens of tú and vos indicate that learners used vos verb forms over 70% of the time by the end of the sojourn. Factors including social networks, proficiency level, mood, and task significantly influenced this use. Most notably, the stronger the learners’ social networks, the more they used vos verb forms and learners with high proficiency levels used these forms more than lower-proficiency learners. This study provides one of the first accounts of the acquisition of a widespread morphosyntactic feature of Latin American Spanish. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Morphosyntactic Structures in French and Spanish: Advances in Research on Multicompetent Speakers)
10 pages, 419 KiB  
Article
The Southern Moroccan Dialects and the Hilāli Category
by Felipe Benjamin Francisco
Languages 2021, 6(4), 192; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages6040192 - 23 Nov 2021
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2737
Abstract
The aim of this paper is to review the classification of the southern Moroccan dialects, advancing on the general description of these varieties. Recent descriptive studies provided us with new sources on the linguistic reality of southern Morocco, shedding light on the status [...] Read more.
The aim of this paper is to review the classification of the southern Moroccan dialects, advancing on the general description of these varieties. Recent descriptive studies provided us with new sources on the linguistic reality of southern Morocco, shedding light on the status of dialects commonly classified as Bedouin or ‘Hilāli’ within the Maghrebi context. To do so, the paper highlights conservative and innovative features which characterize the dialects of the area, focusing mainly—but not exclusively—on the updated data for two distant localities in southern Morocco: Essaouira and its rural outskirts—the Chiadma territory (Aquermoud and Sīdi Īsḥāq)—and Tafilalt, in south-eastern Morocco. The southern dialects have been situated in an intermediary zone between pre-Hilāli and Hilāli categories for a long time. Discussing their situation may contribute to understanding what distinguishes them as a dialectal group and also the validity of the ‘Hilāli’ category in the Moroccan context. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Classification of Arabic Dialects: Traditional Approaches, New Proposals, and Methodological Problems)
18 pages, 430 KiB  
Article
The Development of Discourse and Morphological Features in L2 Narratives: A Study with Classroom Spanish-Speaking Learners of French
by Maria Kihlstedt and Jesús Izquierdo
Languages 2021, 6(4), 191; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages6040191 - 19 Nov 2021
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2562
Abstract
Previous research has examined the organization of second-language French narratives through discourse or morphological analyses. At the discourse level, the analyses have investigated the foreground/background relationship. Conversely, at the morphological level, the analyses have examined the role played by verbal morphology and verbal [...] Read more.
Previous research has examined the organization of second-language French narratives through discourse or morphological analyses. At the discourse level, the analyses have investigated the foreground/background relationship. Conversely, at the morphological level, the analyses have examined the role played by verbal morphology and verbal predicates. Different methodological caveats have limited the interpretation of findings in both types of analyses. In order to provide new data, this cross-sectional study examined the evolution of discourse and morphological resources in the written narratives of Mexican Spanish-speaking learners of French whose language learning experience is limited to the classroom. The learners in the cross-sectional sample (n = 11) were selected from a population of 88 participants who completed lexical, past-tense and general proficiency tests. They also generated two written narratives during silent-film retelling tasks. The cross-sectional sample selection was based on the learners’ test scores and the results of parametric statistical analyses. The narratives were analyzed for the identification of foreground/background clauses, verbal morphology and verbal predicates. The results reveal that, as learners’ past-tense knowledge increases, the organization of narratives consolidates through a developmental path that involves the interrelated growth of discourse and morphological features. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Morphosyntactic Structures in French and Spanish: Advances in Research on Multicompetent Speakers)
15 pages, 4083 KiB  
Article
Auditory and Acoustic Evidence for Palatalization of the Nasal Consonant in Cairene Arabic
by Navdeep Sokhey
Languages 2021, 6(4), 190; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages6040190 - 18 Nov 2021
Viewed by 3205
Abstract
This paper introduces the palatalized nasal [nʲ] as an allophonic realization of coronal /n/ in Cairene Arabic. The palatalized variants of the phonemes previously described in acoustic and sociolinguistic terms include the alveolar stops [t, d] and their pharyngealized counterparts [tˤ, dˤ], which [...] Read more.
This paper introduces the palatalized nasal [nʲ] as an allophonic realization of coronal /n/ in Cairene Arabic. The palatalized variants of the phonemes previously described in acoustic and sociolinguistic terms include the alveolar stops [t, d] and their pharyngealized counterparts [tˤ, dˤ], which can be palatalized preceding the high, front vowel [i:]. While previous studies have anecdotally noted that the coronal nasal /n/ can undergo palatalization in the same environment, this variant has not been systematically investigated. Focusing on syllable-final /-ni:/ segments, I first use auditory measures to show that the palatalized variant occurs with some regularity (~50%) in the read speech of seven speakers of Cairene Arabic. Then, I provide acoustic evidence that this perceived difference significantly correlates with the difference in F2 values taken from the onset and midpoint of the vowel following the nasal consonant. There is also evidence of a lexical effect, such that borrowings exhibit less palatalization than non-borrowings. This study contributes data for the unexamined Cairene nasal and supports the likelihood of palatalization of coronals at the typological level. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Classification of Arabic Dialects: Traditional Approaches, New Proposals, and Methodological Problems)
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30 pages, 1844 KiB  
Article
The That-Trace Effect: Evidence from Spanish–English Code-Switching
by Bradley Hoot and Shane Ebert
Languages 2021, 6(4), 189; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages6040189 - 17 Nov 2021
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 4821
Abstract
The that-trace effect is the fact that many languages (like English) ban the extraction of embedded-clause subjects but not objects over an overt complementizer like that, while many other languages (like Spanish) allow such extractions. The effect and its cross-linguistic variation [...] Read more.
The that-trace effect is the fact that many languages (like English) ban the extraction of embedded-clause subjects but not objects over an overt complementizer like that, while many other languages (like Spanish) allow such extractions. The effect and its cross-linguistic variation have been the subject of intense research but remain largely a mystery, with no clear consensus on their underpinnings. We contribute novel evidence to these debates by using Spanish–English code-switching (the use of two languages in one sentence) to test five contemporary theoretical accounts of the that-trace effect. We conducted a formal acceptability judgment experiment, manipulating the extracted argument and code-switch site to test different combinations of linguistic features. We found that subject extraction is only permitted in Spanish–English code-switching when both the C head (que ‘that’) and the T head (i.e., the verb) are in Spanish, but not when either functional head is in English. Our results demonstrate indirect support for two of the five theories we test, failing to support the other three. Our findings also provide new evidence in favor of the view that the that-trace effect is tightly linked to the availability of post-verbal subjects. Finally, we outline how our results can narrow the range of possible theoretical accounts, demonstrating how code-switching data can contribute to core questions in linguistic theory. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Exploring the Syntactic Properties of Code-Switching)
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27 pages, 404 KiB  
Article
A Toolkit for the Investigation of Greek EFL Teachers’ Assessment Literacy
by Eirini Gkogkou and Ifigenia Kofou
Languages 2021, 6(4), 188; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages6040188 - 16 Nov 2021
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2927
Abstract
The role of assessment in a learner-centred environment is considered to be significant for both learners and teachers. Most of the time, however, it is used in traditional ways and ignores learners’ individual needs. Based on the results of a survey conducted in [...] Read more.
The role of assessment in a learner-centred environment is considered to be significant for both learners and teachers. Most of the time, however, it is used in traditional ways and ignores learners’ individual needs. Based on the results of a survey conducted in 2019, in which a questionnaire was administered to a hundred and twenty EFL teachers, the present study aims to investigate Greek EFL teachers’ responses to communicative testing techniques and their awareness of assessment methods and principles. The aforementioned survey revealed that the majority of EFL teachers in the Greek educational context use traditional tests to assess their students and, although they are aware of alternative assessment methods and the benefits they offer, they fail to employ them. Thus, a 106-item tool was created in order to help teachers design, develop, and critically evaluate tests, as well as reflect on their assessment techniques to promote the use of alternative assessment and supplement the teachers’ theoretical knowledge and experience. Ninety-three EFL teachers evaluated themselves and rated their practices through the toolkit to find out the type of assessors that they are. The findings revealed that a lot of the participants are aware of the key principles of assessment and try to assess the four skills in a communicative and authentic way to a great extent, but most of them are mainstream assessors. The findings can be used to help design samples of authentic tasks for all skills and assessment-related teacher training material. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Developments in Language Testing and Assessment)
20 pages, 958 KiB  
Article
Romance and Croatian in Contact: Non-Clitic Auxiliaries in Istro-Romanian
by Adina Dragomirescu and Alexandru Nicolae
Languages 2021, 6(4), 187; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages6040187 - 13 Nov 2021
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 3716
Abstract
This paper focuses on Istro-Romanian and argues that the TAM auxiliaries of this variety are not morphophonological clitics. This analysis is supported by the existence of several empirical phenomena (auxiliary-licensed VP-ellipsis, scrambling, and interpolation), some not found in modern Romance, others very rare [...] Read more.
This paper focuses on Istro-Romanian and argues that the TAM auxiliaries of this variety are not morphophonological clitics. This analysis is supported by the existence of several empirical phenomena (auxiliary-licensed VP-ellipsis, scrambling, and interpolation), some not found in modern Romance, others very rare in modern Romance. This property of Istro-Romanian auxiliary verbs accounts, in conjunction with other features of this variety (e.g., the availability of C-oriented and I-oriented pronominal clitics), for the massive variation in the word order of pronominal clitics, auxiliaries, and the lexical verb found in the Istro-Romanian sentential core. An endangered Romance variety spoken in Istria and in the diaspora, historically related to (Daco-)Romanian, Istro-Romanian has been in contact with Croatian since the settlement of Istro-Romanians in the Istrian peninsula. As some of the Istro-Romanian features and phenomena are found both in Croatian and in old Romanian, it appears that contact with Croatian acts as a catalyst of structural convergence engendering the retention of an archaic property of Istro-Romanian auxiliaries: a lower position on the grammaticalization cline, closer to the full word status of their etyma. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Syntactic Variation in Language Contact Situations.The view from an I-Language Perspective)
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26 pages, 795 KiB  
Article
The Effect of Ethnicity on Identification of Korean American Speech
by Andrew Cheng and Steve Cho
Languages 2021, 6(4), 186; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages6040186 - 9 Nov 2021
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 5833
Abstract
Research on ethnic varieties of American English has found that listeners can identify speaker ethnicity from voice alone at above-chance rates. This study aims to extend this research by focusing on the perception of race and ethnicity in the voices of ethnically Korean [...] Read more.
Research on ethnic varieties of American English has found that listeners can identify speaker ethnicity from voice alone at above-chance rates. This study aims to extend this research by focusing on the perception of race and ethnicity in the voices of ethnically Korean speakers of English. Bilingual Korean Americans in California provided samples of English speech that were rated by 105 listeners. Listeners rated the speakers on their likelihood of being a certain race or ethnicity (including Asian and White). Listeners who were Korean themselves rated the speakers as more likely to be Asian and Korean, whereas non-Asian listeners rated the speakers as more likely to be White. Non-Asian listeners also demonstrated a negative correlation between rating a voice as Asian and rating a voice as belonging to a native-born American, while Asian listeners did not. Finally, a positive correlation between pitch and perceived Asianness was found for female speakers, corresponding to listeners’ metalinguistic commentary about the hallmarks and stereotypes of Asian or Asian American speech. The findings implicate the listener’s own ethnic identity and familiarity with a speech variety as an important factor in sociolinguistic perception. Full article
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18 pages, 3377 KiB  
Article
Pitch Range and Voice Quality in Dimasa Focus Intonation
by Shakuntala Mahanta, Amalesh Gope and Priti Raychoudhury
Languages 2021, 6(4), 185; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages6040185 - 8 Nov 2021
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2853
Abstract
This paper presents an analysis of Dimasa focus intonation. The acoustic analysis shows that narrow focus sentences undergo a jump in the pitch range irrespective of the underlying tonal value of the morpheme it attaches to. In addition to f0 expansion, the prosodic [...] Read more.
This paper presents an analysis of Dimasa focus intonation. The acoustic analysis shows that narrow focus sentences undergo a jump in the pitch range irrespective of the underlying tonal value of the morpheme it attaches to. In addition to f0 expansion, the prosodic property of focus in Dimasa was found to have different (tense) phonation in morphologically marked narrow focus sentences when compared to the broad focus context. Thus, the tense phonation property of sentences bearing morphological focus is not only an acoustic property of a higher pitch range but may also be an acoustic cue of discourse-level intonation. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Exploring the Interaction between Phonation and Prosody)
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20 pages, 1603 KiB  
Article
The Role of Linguistic Typology, Target Language Proficiency and Prototypes in Learning Aspectual Contrasts in Italian as Additional Language
by Francesco Vallerossa
Languages 2021, 6(4), 184; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages6040184 - 5 Nov 2021
Cited by 8 | Viewed by 3284
Abstract
The study examines how prototypes and typological relationships between the L1, the L2 and the target language (TL) interact with TL proficiency in learning Italian as additional language. Low-proficiency and high-proficiency undergraduate learners of Italian (N = 25) with Swedish as L1 performed [...] Read more.
The study examines how prototypes and typological relationships between the L1, the L2 and the target language (TL) interact with TL proficiency in learning Italian as additional language. Low-proficiency and high-proficiency undergraduate learners of Italian (N = 25) with Swedish as L1 performed an oral retelling story test, aiming to elicit the Italian aspectual contrast perfective-imperfective. Their tense selection was analyzed considering the predicates’ lexical aspect and the learners’ knowledge of a Romance L2, or lack thereof. The findings show that the typological proximity between the L2 and the TL exerts a differential role depending on TL proficiency. Initially, it is beneficial for accelerating the overall emergence of the imperfetto as an aspectual marker. However, the prototype factor and, more specifically, the predicates’ dynamicity influences the selection of past inflectional morphology. At more advanced stages, knowledge of a Romance language helps learners move beyond prototypical associations with the passato prossimo, but it does not seem to influence the use of the imperfetto among high-proficiency learners. These results are discussed in the light of research on the second and additional language learning of aspectual contrasts in Romance languages. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Exploring the Syntax-Semantics Interface in the Romance Languages)
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