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Review

Marine Floral Biodiversity, Threats, and Conservation in Vietnam: An Updated Review

by
Manh-Linh Nguyen
1,2,
Myung-Sook Kim
3,*,
Nhu-Thuy Nhat Nguyen
4,
Xuan-Thuy Nguyen
4,
Van-Luong Cao
1,*,
Xuan-Vy Nguyen
2,4 and
Christophe Vieira
3,*
1
Institute of Marine Environment and Resources, VAST, Hai Phong 180000, Vietnam
2
Faculty of Ecology and Biological Resources, Graduate University of Science and Technology, VAST, Ha Noi 100000, Vietnam
3
Research Institute for Basic Sciences, Jeju National University, Jeju 63000, Republic of Korea
4
Institute of Oceanography, VAST, Nha Trang 650000, Vietnam
*
Authors to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Plants 2023, 12(9), 1862; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants12091862
Submission received: 6 March 2023 / Revised: 17 April 2023 / Accepted: 19 April 2023 / Published: 30 April 2023
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Integrative Taxonomy of Plants)
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Abstract

:

Simple Summary

The present review provides (1) an updated checklist of the Vietnamese marine flora, (2) a review of molecular-assisted alpha taxonomic efforts, (3) an analysis of marine floral biodiversity spatial distribution nationally and regionally (South China Sea), (4) a discussion on the impact of anthropogenic and environmental stressors on the Vietnamese marine flora, and (5) the efforts developed in the last decade for its conservation. The updated checklist consists of 878 species, including 439 Rhodophyta, 156 Ochrophyta, 196 Chlorophyta, 87 Cyanobacteria, and 15 seagrasses. The South Central Coast supports the highest species diversity of marine algae, which coincides with the largest density of coral reefs along the Vietnam coast. Vietnam holds one of the richest marine floras in the South China Sea owing to the country’s coastline length and associated marine habitat diversity. However, the Vietnamese marine floral biodiversity is facing critical threats, and present management efforts are yet insufficient for their conservation. A methodical molecular-assisted re-examination of Vietnam marine floral biodiversity is urgently needed, complemented with in-depth investigations of the main threats targeted against it; and finally, conservation measures should be urgently implemented.

Abstract

Part of the Indo-Chinese peninsula and located on the northwest edge of the Coral Triangle in the South China Sea, the Vietnamese coastal zone is home to a wealthy marine biodiversity associated with the regional geological setting and history, which supports a large number of marine ecosystems along a subtropical to tropical gradient. The diversity of coastal benthic marine primary producers is also a key biological factor supporting marine biological diversity. The present review provides: (1) an updated checklist of the Vietnamese marine flora, (2) a review of molecular-assisted alpha taxonomic efforts, (3) an analysis of marine floral biodiversity spatial distribution nationally and regionally (South China Sea), (4) a review of the impact of anthropogenic and environmental stressors on the Vietnamese marine flora, and (5) the efforts developed in the last decade for its conservation. Based on the studies conducted since 2013 and the nomenclatural changes that occurred during this period, an updated checklist of benthic marine algae and seagrasses consisted in a new total of 878 species, including 439 Rhodophyta, 156 Ochrophyta, 196 Chlorophyta, 87 Cyanobacteria, and 15 phanerogam seagrasses. This update contains 54 new records and 5 new species of macroalgae. The fairly poor number of new records and new species identified in the last 10 years in a “mega-diverse” country can be largely attributed to the limited efforts in exploring algal biodiversity and the limited use of genetic tools, with only 25.4% (15 species) of these new records and species made based on molecular-assisted alpha taxonomy. The South Central Coast supports the highest species diversity of marine algae, which coincides with the largest density of coral reefs along the Vietnamese coast. Vietnam holds in the South China Sea one of the richest marine floras, imputable to the country’s geographical, geological, and climatic settings. However, Vietnam marine floral biodiversity is under critical threats examined here, and current efforts are insufficient for its conservation. A methodical molecular-assisted re-examination of Vietnam marine floral biodiversity is urgently needed, complemented with in-depth investigations of the main threats targeting marine flora and vulnerable taxa, and finally, conservation measures should be urgently implemented.

1. Introduction

Located along the eastern margin of the Indo-Chinese Peninsula, on the northwest edge of the Coral Triangle biodiversity hotspot [1], in the South China Sea (also known as the East Vietnam Sea or Biển Đông), the Vietnamese coastal zone is home to a remarkably rich marine biodiversity [2,3]. Vietnam has been listed among the top 25 most biologically diverse countries in the world [4] and characterized by some authors as a “mega-diverse country” [5,6]. The origin of this diversity is linked to the region’s (Southeast Asia) geological and climatic history, the country’s coastline length covering some 3260 km along a north–south orientation, thus with a wide latitudinal range (stretching from 21°30′ N to 8°25′ N), spanning a subtropical–tropical transition zone, which supports no less than 20 types of marine ecosystems [7]. It is nonetheless important to also point to the role of coastal benthic marine primary producers (e.g., algae, corals, seagrasses) as a key biological factor supporting other forms of marine biological diversity [8]. Benthic marine algae occur across virtually all marine coastal systems from intertidal zone to depths of >200 m, on soft (e.g., sandy) to hard (e.g., rocky) substrates, in a variety of habitats (e.g., lagoons, bays, islands, islets, atolls, and reefs) and ecosystems (e.g., mangroves, seagrasses beds, and coral reefs).
The marine flora of Vietnam, which includes three main classes of macroalgae (Chlorophyta, Ochrophyta, Rhodophyta), marine phanerogams or seagrasses (Alismatales), and Cyanobacteria (Cyanophyceae), has attracted the attention of marine botanists since the 1800s. The first mention of Vietnamese seaweeds appeared in the Flora Cochinchinensis [9], with the record of 11 names of marine macroalgal species, later referenced in the work of Agardh [10,11] and De Toni [12,13]. The French institution “Institut océanographique de l’Indochine”, corresponding today to the “Institute of Oceanography”, contributed considerably during the 1930s to the knowledge on the algal diversity of Vietnam, notably owing to the work of Pham-Hoàng Hộ [14], considered to be the first Vietnamese marine algal taxonomists of Vietnam. The first collections from the Spratly Islands Archipelago, by the French naturalist Jean Marie Antoine De Lanessan in 1936 (Gouvernement Général de L’Indochine, 1936) [15]—currently housed at the Museum of Oceanography, Nha Trang City—are worthy of mention (Figure 1). Dawson [16] published the very first checklist on the Vietnamese marine flora of Nha Trang Bay in the province of Khanh Hoa (South Central Coast region) with the “Institut Océanographique de Nha Trang”. Dawson [16] reported a total of 204 species (16 Cyanophyceae, 118 Rhodophyta, 22 Ochrophyta, and 48 Chlorophyta), nearly all of which were new species records for Vietnam. Until 1967, the list of marine macroalgae in South Vietnam consisted of 517 species and subspecies [14]. In north of Vietnam, Nguyen et al. [17] provided a list of 281 species. Subsequent studies focused mainly on understudied taxonomic groups and regions of Vietnam, for example, on the families Sargassaceae [18,19,20] and Halymeniaceae [21,22] and on the genera Gracilaria and Gracilariopsis [23,24], Eucheuma and Kappaphycus [25,26], Dictyota [27], and Laurencia [28,29]. Regions of Vietnam that were later investigated included archipelagoes or offshore islands, such as the Spratly Archipelago [30,31,32,33,34], Ly Son Island [35], Phu Quy Island [36], and some inland coastal sites, such as Hai Van–Son Cha [37], Nha Trang Bay [38], Ninh Thuan [39], and Con Dao Island [40]. Recently, Belous et al. [41] published a checklist of 702 species including Rhodophyta, Ochrophyta, and Chlorophyta recorded from Southern and Central Vietnam (16°12′ southward) [41]. Earlier, in 2013, Nguyen et al. (2013) published the first comprehensive marine macroalgal checklist for all Vietnam based on a review of 81 books and publications [42]. The checklist contained a total of 827 species, including 412 Rhodophyta, 180 Chlorophyta, 147 Ochrophyta, and 88 Cyanobacteria. The authors suggested that several taxa needed further investigation to better understand their diversity in Vietnamese waters, and noted the need to combine DNA barcoding and morphological observations to resolve or clarify taxonomic uncertainties. Previously, the checklist of seagrass showed 14 species [43]. In addition, Halophila major (Zollinger) Miquel was newly recorded in Vietnamese waters in 2013 [44]. Recently, the phylogenetic analysis inferred from genetic marker and morphological observation revealed the putative hybridization form between two species, H. ovalis and H. major [45]. No new record or new species of Cyanobacteria were made since the work of Pham-Hoàng Hộ [14].
The aims of the present review were multifold: (1) to deliver an updated checklist of the Vietnamese marine flora, (2) to review molecular-assisted alpha taxonomic efforts implemented in its study, (3) to examine marine floral biodiversity spatial patterns across Vietnamese regions and countries in the South China Sea region, (4) to discuss anthropogenic and environmental threats directly affecting Vietnamese marine flora, and (5) the efforts deployed nationally in the last decade for its conservation.

2. Species Diversity Update

Our first objective was to thoroughly review the taxonomic work conducted on the Vietnamese marine flora in the last 10 years since the checklist of Nguyen et al. [42] was published, focusing on 3 main macroalgal phyla/classes (Chlorophyta, Ochrophyta, and Rhodophyta), Cyanobacteria (Cyanophyta), and marine phanerogams or seagrasses (Alismatales). Our literature review of the past 10 years’ research on Vietnamese algae and seagrass taxonomy led to the documentation of a total of 54 new records (i.e., species newly recorded from Vietnam in the period between the last checklist and this updated checklist) and 5 new species (i.e., species newly described from Vietnam in the period between the last checklist and this updated checklist) of macroalgae (3 Rhodophyta, 1 Ochrophyta, and 1 Chlorophyta). New species and new records made during the last 10 years are listed in Table 1. No new records of Cyanobacteria or seagrasses were made since 2013. Based on these new data and the nomenclatural changes that occurred in the last 10 years (such as synonymies), we provide an updated checklist of the benthic marine flora, bringing the new total to 878 species of algae in 42 orders, 108 families, and 284 genera, and consisting of 439 Rhodophyta (21 orders, 52 families, and 161 genera), 156 Ochrophyta (7 orders, 13 families, and 36 genera), 196 Chlorophyta (6 orders, 23 families, and 44 genera), 87 Cyanobacteria (8 orders, 18 families, 42 genera), and 15 seagrasses in Alismatales (1 order, 4 families, and 10 genera) listed in Table 2. A total of 112 species of Rhodophyta are updated to the currently accepted names. Three new species and 13 new records were added to the checklist. Four species, including Gracilaria mammillaris, Dasya baillouviana, Meristotheca papulosa, and Mesophyllum erubescens, were removed from the checklist because they were misidentifications. For Chlorophyta, 17 species were updated to the corrected name; 11 species were newly recorded, mainly in 2 genera, Ulva and Caulerpa; and only 1 new species was new to science. Two species of Chlorophyta were removed from the checklist: the misspelled name (i.e., orthographic mistake in AlgaeBase) “Codium tunue” and Cladophora adhaerens Ruprecht, which is an invalidly published name. For Ochrophyta, only 1 new species and 2 new records were added to the checklist, and 7 species were updated to the currently accepted names. Finally, 21 species of Cyanobacteria were updated to currently accepted names. We compared our updated checklist with the data available from AlgaeBase [46] for Cyanobacteria, Rhodophyta, Ochrophyta, and Chlorophyta. AlgaeBase [46] data consisted of a lower number of species with a total of 862 species consisting of 51 Cyanobacteria, 438 Rhodophyta, 171 Ochrophyta, and 202 Chlorophyta. Among 4 phyla, Cyanobacteria showed the lowest richness (87 species, 10%). The checklist of marine macroalgae in Vietnam published by Nguyen et al. [42] did not show any new species and new records of Cyanobacteria [42]. The checklist of marine macroalgae in South Vietnam [41], Nha Trang Bay [38], and Con Dao Island [40] did not list any Cyanobacteria. It indicated that Cyanobacteria have not been studied in detail. Therefore, Cyanobacteria need to be included in future works.

3. Molecular-Assisted Alpha Taxonomy of the Vietnamese Marine Flora

The use of molecular-assisted alpha taxonomy of marine algae is very recent in Vietnam [24,93]. Molecular tools are presently needed among other purposes: (1) validate previous species identification, (2) identify new records and species, and (3) detect introduced species (e.g., [94,95,96]). Studies combining DNA-based species delimitation techniques and detailed morphological observations have refined our knowledge on Vietnamese species taxonomy and on the individual species’ biogeographical ranges. Nevertheless, such efforts have been very limited in the last decade. Among the 59 new records and species made in the last 10 years, only 25.4% (15 species) were based on molecular-assisted alpha taxonomy. Hereafter, we reviewed molecular studies conducted thus far on Vietnamese marine macroalgae, identifying the taxa studied, marker used, and taxonomic results.

3.1. Molecular-Assisted Alpha Taxonomy of Rhodophyta

Molecular-assisted alpha taxonomic studies on Rhodophyta have comprised a total of four markers, analyzed individually or combined, consisting of two chloroplast genes (large subunit of ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate-carboxylase-oxygenase (rbcL); photosystem I P700 chlorophyll a apoprotein A1 (psaA)), one mitochondrial gene (cytochrome c oxidase I (cox1)), and one nuclear gene (LSU rDNA (28S)). The plastidic rbcL gene has been mostly used. The 2006 publication by Hau et al. [24] conducted one of the first molecular studies on Vietnamese Rhodophyta, analyzing the phylogenetic relationships among Gracilariaceae using rbcL, which revealed a new species of Gracilariopsis, Gracilariopsis nhatrangensis Le & Lin. Based on rbcL alone, Le et al. [49] later showed that Gracilaria mammillaris (Montagne) M.Howe had been misidentified as Gracilaria phuquocensis Le, Muangmai & Zuccarello, a new species found in Vietnam; Nguyen et al. [56] newly recorded the Halymeniales species Phyllymenia taiwanensis (Lin & Liang) Lin, Rodríguez-Prieto, De Clerck & Guiry in Da Nang from Central Vietnam; Nguyen et al. [55] recorded Phyllymenia huangiae (Lin & Liang) Lin, Rodríguez-Prieto, De Clerck & Guiry (Figure 2E); and Duy [47] reported the Rhodomelaceae species Chondrophycus tronoi (Ganzon-Fortes) Nam from Vietnam. Analyses based on cox1, psaA, and rbcL sequences allowed the discovery of the Gelidiellaceae species Perronella gracilis Boo, Nguyen, Kim & Boo from Nha Trang Bay from Southern Vietnam [53], and the transfer of Gelidiella adnata Dawson to Parviphycus adnatus (Dawson) Santelices. Analyses based on the concatenated rbcL and cox1 sequences also revealed a new record of Delesseriaceae from Vietnam, Zellera tawallina Martens (Figure 2A), previously identified as Claudea batanensis Tanaka [55]. Analyses combining rbcL and cox1 sequences allowed the identification of a new species, Meristotheca lysonensis Nguyen, Nguyen, Kittle & McDermid, collected at Ly Son Island in the South Central Coast region of Vietnam [52] (Figure 2B). A last worthy account for Rhodophyta is that of the Halymeniaceae species Halymenia dilatata Zanardini, a common species in Vietnam, previously reported in several publications [14,16]. Based on phylogenetic analyses using concatenated chloroplast and mitochondrial and nuclear markers (rbcL, cox1, and LSU rDNA (28S)), Vy et al. [50] showed that H. dilatata may have been misidentified as Halymenia malaysiana Tan, Lim, Lin & Phang, a study that confirms new distributional records of Phycocalidia tanegashimensis along the Chinese and Vietnamese coastline in the South China Sea. The study used molecular sequence data from rbcL, COI-5P, and 18S rRNA genes to place P. tanegashimensis in a clade with P. acanthophora, P. denticulata, P. suborbiculata, and P. vietnamensis as out-groups [54].

3.2. Molecular-Assisted Alpha Taxonomy of Ochrophyta

Molecular-assisted alpha taxonomic studies on Ochrophyta have comprised a total of four molecular markers, analyzed individually or combined, consisting of two chloroplast genes (rbcL and the PSII thylakoid protein D1 (psbA)), one mitochondrial gene (cytochrome c oxidase subunit III (cox3)), and one nuclear encoded ribosomal cistron (ITS 2 rDNA). Tu [97] used ITS2 rDNA and cox3 sequences to reassess Sargassum species diversity from Vietnam. The order Dictyotales has received particular attention in recent years. Using rbcL and psbA markers, Nguyen-Nhat et al. [58] newly identified Dictyota hauckiana Nizamuddin from Ninh Thuan (Figure 2C). One additional species of Dictyota was newly recorded from Vietnam, Dictyota grossedentata De Clerck & Coppejans [55] (Figure 2D). Molecular phylogenetic analyses based on concatenated rbcL and cox3 sequences led to the description of the new species Lobophora tsengii Tien & Sun from Bach Long Vy [60], although morphological and molecular analyses did not conclusively rule out its conspecificity with Lobophora rosacea C.W.Vieira, Payri& De Clerck.

3.3. Molecular-Assisted Alpha Taxonomy of Chlorophyta

For Chlorophyta, the only molecular-assisted alpha taxonomic study reported until now is that by Tran et al. [61], who reassessed the species diversity in Vietnam of the Ulvaceae genus Ulva based on rbcL and the elongation factor Tu (tufA). The study revealed seven new records of Ulva from Vietnam and identified a new species, U. vietnamensis L-A. T. Tran, Leliaert & De Clerck.

3.4. Molecular-Assisted Alpha Taxonomy of Cyanobacteria and Alismatales

For Alismatales (seagrasses), the concatenated rbcL and matK were applied to assess the species diversity of Halophila [98]. Based on the genetic marker ITS, a later study by Nguyen et al. [44] showed that Halophila major was the correct name for the collections of Halophila ovalis from Nha Trang Bay. All seagrass species from Vietnam were confirmed with molecular markers, and samples previously labeled as “Halophila johnsonii” were reidentified as H. ovalis. Therefore, Halophila johnsonii was removed from the seagrass checklist of Vietnam [99]. Halophila major was found in most offshore islands, whereas H. ovalis occurred in lagoons in Vietnamese waters [100]. In contrast, no molecular-assisted alpha taxonomic study on Cyanophyceae was yet conducted in Vietnam.

3.5. Intraspecific Genetic Diversity Studies

Several DNA fingerprinting have been applied to investigate the genetic relationships among individuals within or among populations of the same species [101,102]. In a global study of Gracilaria salicornia (Agardh) Dawson from Southeast Asia, Yang et al. [103] distinguished a lineage of the Philippines from other Southeast Asian countries (e.g., Malaysia and Thailand). For another Rhodophyta, Phycocalidia acanthophora (Oliveira & Coll) Santiañez, the dataset of rbcL indicated that there is no haplotype sharing between populations in the Philippines and other nearby areas, including Taiwan, Japan, and Hong Kong [104]. In Vietnam, the red algae species in Kappaphycus and Eucheuma are important economically and were widely cultivated in the South Central. So far, based on a combined cox2–3 and rbcL dataset, Zuccarelo et al. [105] compared the genetic variation among cultivated Kappaphycus alvarezii (Doty) Liao farming worldwide, including a strain from Vietnam; the authors indicated that there is no genetic variation among samples collected in Vietnam and other Southeast Asian countries, such as the Philippines, Malaysia, and Indonesia. However, Kappaphycus alvarezii collected from Africa and Hawai’i showed significant differences from populations in Southeast Asian countries. By using random amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD) markers, Hong et al. [106] also revealed the genetic variation among strains of Kappaphycus spp. and Eucheuma spp. in Vietnam, Kappaphycus striatus (Schmitz) Liao. The analyses of the mitochondrial cox2–3 spacer of Kappaphycus spp. and Eucheuma spp. showed that there are two haplotypes of K. alvarezii, and an unidentified Kappaphycus sp. was also found in Vietnam and the Philippines [107]. A later study by Tan et al. [108] indicated that the aring-aring strain was described as the new species Kappaphycus malesianus Tan, Lim & Phang. There is no evidence of occurrence of this species in Vietnamese waters. The biogeography of Halymenia malaysiana was studied in more detail. Our previous study showed that the common haplotype in Vietnam is R1, and three new haplotypes were added to H. malaysiana for Southeast Asia (Figure 3). There are statistically significant genetic differences between Sunda Shelf (Vietnam and Malaysia) populations and those in Philippine waters [50]. For another economic species, Gracilaria tenuistipitata Chang & Xia, Song et al. [109] found that there is only one haplotype (T5) in Vietnam. Compared with other haplotypes in Thailand, Malaysia, and Singapore, a haplotype of Gracilaria tenuistipitata collected in Vietnam showed from one to eight mutational steps. Recently, the tufA gene was applied to find the haplotype and genetic diversity of the green algae Halimeda spp.; Nguyen et al. [110] concluded that the genetic variation in H. macroloba Decaisne is very low, and H. opuntia (Linnaeus) J.V.Lamouroux tends to form a distinct group in Vietnamese waters.

4. Biodiversity Distribution Patterns

4.1. Marine Floral Biodiversity across the South China Sea

Located on the northwest edge of the Coral Triangle biodiversity hotspot, the South China Sea is one of the most productive marine regions in the world [111,112]. The sea is bordered by twelve states and territories, including Brunei, Cambodia, (mainland) China, Hong Kong, Indonesia, Macao, Malaysia, the Philippines, Singapore, Taiwan, Thailand, and Vietnam. Phang et al. [63] documented 1412 species of marine algae from the South China Sea (119 Cyanophyceae, 305 Chlorophyta, 258 Ochrophyta, and 730 Rhodophyta) from six countries bordering the South China Sea (Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines, Singapore, Thailand, and Vietnam). Their analyses showed similarity in the marine algal floras of Malaysia, Singapore, and Thailand and those of Vietnam and the Philippines. We present here an overview of species diversity from states and territories bordering the South China Sea based on AlgaeBase [46] for four algae classes (Cyanobacteria, Rhodophyta, Ochrophyta, and Chlorophyta) and seagrasses. No data were available on AlgaeBase for Brunei, Hong Kong, Macau, Cambodia, and Taiwan. Data for seagrasses were retrieved from different sources indicated in Figure 4 and Table 3. The Gulfs of Thailand and Tonkin were included in the South China Sea. It should be noted that with the exception of Vietnam, the species numbers provided here are not restricted to the South China Sea, but are all-inclusive for each country (i.e., not restricted to the South China Sea), and retrieving data restricted to the South China Sea was not possible. In comparison with other South China Sea bordering states/territories, Vietnam supports the fourth highest marine floral diversity with 877 species, according to AlgaeBase [46] (but 881 species according to our updated checklist). However, taking into account the all-inclusiveness of the number for other countries, Vietnam possibly holds the highest diversity in the South China Sea. In fact, the South China Sea coastlines of the three other species-rich states (China, the Philippines, Indonesia) represent only a fraction of these countries.
Biodiverisity numbers should nevertheless be interpreted cautiously as they may under-represent the actual floral diversity of each country and the region, since they are for the most part established on morphological-based identification, and additionally, some countries have received much lesser attention than others (e.g., Brunei, Cambodia, and Malaysia). Notwithstanding, the high floral biodiversity in the South China Sea documented so far from Vietnam can be attributed to its geographical location, situated along the southeastern margin of the Indo-Chinese Peninsula, comprising the largest area of the peninsula and the longest coastline in the South China Sea.
We examined the similarity of the marine floras in seven of the states and territories bordering the South China Sea using a Bray–Curtis similarity index [120] multivariate analysis implemented in Primer V.6 software [121] based on compiled data for the region. Results showed that the Vietnamese marine flora was most similar to that of China, followed by those of Indonesia and the Philippines (Figure 5), and that the marine floras of Malaysia, Singapore, and Thailand were very similar (Figure 5), consistent with previous findings by Phang et al. [63].

4.2. Marine Floral Biodiversity across Vietnam Regions

The Vietnamese coastline is divided into three “Geographical Regions” (Northern Vietnam, Central Vietnam, Southern Vietnam) subdivided into eight “Administrative Regions” (Northeast, Northwest, Red River Delta, North Central Coast, South Central Coast, Central Highlands, Southeast, Mekong River Delta) (Figure 6A). Based on our updated checklist, we show marine floral biodiversity across the “Administrative Regions”, excluding the Northwest and Central Highlands regions, which have no coastline. The geographical distribution of the marine floral biodiversity is uneven across Vietnamese regions. The South Central Coast holds the highest diversity by far, with a total of 587 species, followed by the Southeast (243), Red River Delta (210), North Central Coast (204), and Mekong River Delta (203) regions. The Northeast region is the least species region with 160 species. The high marine floral biodiversity documented in the South Central Coast coincides with the largest coral reef density along the coastline of Vietnam (Figure 6B) and a high diversity of marine environments [3]. It is worth mentioning that Spalding [122] proposed five marine ecoregions (Gulf of Thailand, Gulf of Tonkin, Southern Vietnam, Sunda Shelf/Java Sea, South China Sea (East Vietnam Sea) Ocean Islands) along the Vietnamese coastline (Figure 6A).
According to present data, with only 45 endemic species, Vietnam would seem to contain a very low level of endemism of marine flora (5.01%, 45 spp.; Table 4). However, this number most likely under-represents the actual level of endemism for the marine flora of Vietnam, since molecular-assisted alpha taxonomic efforts, needed to obtain accurate taxonomic data, have been very limited.

4.3. Seaweed Biodiversity Loss, Threats, and Conservation

Some species of marine algae in Vietnam have experienced declines in their populations due to a variety of factors. Several threats to marine algae exist in Vietnam, including but not restricted to pollution, climate change, overharvesting, invasive species, and habitat destruction. Marine algae are vulnerable to pollution from a variety of sources, including agricultural runoff, industrial discharge, and sewage. Pollution can harm marine algae directly and also make their habitat less suitable for growth [123]. Marine algae are sensitive to changes in temperature, salinity, and other environmental conditions, and they may be negatively impacted by climate change [124]. Some species of marine algae are in high demand for use in food, cosmetics, and other products, and overharvesting can lead to a decline in their populations [125]. Non-native species of marine algae that are introduced to new areas can outcompete native species and reduce their populations [126]. Marine algae rely on specific types of habitat for growth, and the destruction of these habitats can negatively impact their populations [127]. The biodiversity (marine and terrestrial) of Vietnam has decreased quickly [128]. Some of the known factors in Vietnam are land conversion without a proper scientific base, quick reduction of natural forests, infrastructure developments (e.g., dams, roads, and new urban and rural human settlements), and overexploitation of natural resource/illegal exploitations in fishing, hunting, forestry [2,129,130]. It is difficult to quantify the extent of marine algal diversity loss in Vietnam, as there are limited data available on this topic. Titlyanov et al. [38] quantified seaweed community changes in Nha Trang Bay and investigated the factors associated with these changes. Collections sampled between 1953 and 1968 and 1982 and 1987 did not change significantly in either the species diversity nor the floristic composition. However, the species composition assessed between 2002 and 2010 showed changes in the species diversity composition, with an increase inf Chlorophyta and a reduction of Rhodophyta and Ochrophyta species. In Con Dao Island, significant changes in marine floral species composition were observed between 1998 and 2008, with a proportional species replacement in each taxonomic group over the last two decades [40]. Since the 1970s, several species have not been observed, such as Erythrocladia irregularis Rosenvinge, Acrochaetium crassipes (Børgesen) Børgesen, Metagoniolithon stelliferum (Lamarck) Ducker, and Exophyllum wentii Weber Bosse [41]. Similarly, the species diversity of Sargassum was previously well studied at Nha Trang Bay, with the identification of 21 species between 1950 and 1970. Between 1980 and 2000, 9 of the previously identified species were not recorded, while an additional 15 species were newly added to Sargassum. However, based on the most recent collection, in 2020 in Nha Trang Bay, Sargassum was represented by 14 species, including 7 species found in the previous two surverys and 7 new additions. Overall, 24% (149 species) of algal species in South Vietnam recorded between 1980 and 2000 could not be found between 2000 and 2020 [41]. A report by Vy et al. [131] indicated that nearly 50% of the Sargassum beds at Hon Chong (Khanh Hoa Province) have disappeared because of loss of substratum, and the species Sargassum crassifolium, once a dominant species in this site, disappeared. In Nha Trang Bay, seawater pollution resulting from dissolved organic and inorganic compounds of nitrogen and phosphorus may lead to an increasing larger number of green algae and their biomass as well as population density. The green algae may displace fleshy and foliose forms of red and brown macroalgae from communities [38]. Another threat to seaweed biodiversity is harvesting of natural stocks. Local harvesters collect large quantities of Sargassum for production of alginates, Asian herbal medicine, and various human foods [132]. Young populations of Sargassum are commonly harvested prior to reaching sexual maturity and reproduction, thus affecting natural stock renewal (authors’ pers. obs.). Another case of overexploitation of natural stocks was reported in the edible red seaweed Betaphycus gelatinus, now very rare due to harvesting by locals at Ninh Thuan Province. The Vietnam Red data Book [133] shows 8 and 5 species of Rhodophyta and Ochrophyta, respectively. Among them, Crytonemia undulata is in the critically endangered category. Six species including 5 Rhodophyta and 3 Ochrophyta are in the endangered category. The 6 remaining species are in the vulnerable category. There are 12 marine protected areas (MPAs) from 10 provinces/cites in Vietnam. Large seaweed beds in Khanh Hoa, Ninh Thuan, are out of the core zone of MPAs and therefore under threat. The natural stock of Hydropuntia eucheumatoides, Betaphycus gelatinus, and Sargassum spp. (endangered category) is still collected by local people due to lack of Red Data Book. Like seagrasses, the management models of marine macroalgal ecosystems in Vietnam are mostly integrated into coastal management models to solve the problems of weaknesses that exist in the management, exploitation, and use of natural resources and environmental protection in coastal areas.

5. Conservation Efforts

Conservation efforts are needed to protect and conserve marine floral diversity in Vietnam. It is important to address these threats in order to maintain the health and resilience of Vietnam marine environments and the economic and cultural value of these resources. This may involve measures such as habitat conservation, sustainable harvesting, pollution reduction, and invasive species management. There are several conservation efforts underway in Vietnam to protect the marine flora and the marine environments they are a part of. Some of these efforts are reviewed below.

5.1. Habitat Conservation

Many conservation efforts in Vietnam focus on protecting and preserving the habitats that support marine flora. This may involve establishing marine protected areas (MPAs) or other types of conservation zones, which are designated areas of the ocean that are set aside for the protection and conservation of marine life. Recognizing the importance of marine protected areas in the protection of marine biodiversity, the prime minister released Decision No. 742/QD-TTg on 26 May 2010, authorizing the preparation for the marine biodiversity scheme. Marine conservation in Vietnam will continue until 2020 (this deadline has been extended), with the aim of preserving habitats and marine species of economic and scientific importance. It aimed to contribute to the development of marine economy and improve the livelihoods of fishermen communities in coastal localities. The Fisheries Law of 2017 was passed by the 14th National Assembly, which includes provisions for the protection and growth of aquatic resources, including marine conservation, in the sense of sustainable fisheries development and international integration. The Communist Party of Vietnam’s Central Committee released Resolution No. 36-NQ/TW on the Strategy for Sustainable Development of Vietnam’s Marine Economy to 2030 with a Vision to 2045 on 22 October 2018. The document stated on the matter: “Sustainable development of the marine economy on the basis of green growth, biodiversity protection, and marine environment conservation; ensure harmony between economic and natural environments, conservation and development, promoting the sea’s potentials and advantages, and creating a driving force for national economic development”; and that the specific target was to “Well maintain and protect aquatic, coastal, and island ecosystems; raise the area of marine and coastal protected areas to at least 6% of the national marine area”. Currently, the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development and other cities have created and operationalized 12 marine protected areas (Figure 4B, Table 5). These 12 MPAs amount to a total of 243,023 ha (ca. 2430 km2), which corresponds to ca. 0.17% of the total surface (ca. 1,395,096 km2) of the Vietnamese Marine Exclusive Economic Zone. Among the 12 MPAs, 3 typically contain seaweeds and 9 seagrasses.
Moreover, there are other nature reserves along the coast of Vietnam [134] (Table 6). The Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development has developed comprehensive plans for the establishment of four MPAs, which have been submitted to provincial people’s committees for approval: Hon Me/Thanh Hoa, Nam Yet/Khanh Hoa, Phu Quy/Binh Thuan, and Hai Van–Son Cha/Da Nang–Hue.
Despite the fact that the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development has organized a mission to inspect, guide, and have several documents to direct and inform, the provincial people’s committees have not yet approved the establishment after more than 5 years of handover of Vietnam’s coastal area has high biodiversity: 13 out of 28 national parks, 22 out of 55 nature reserves, and 17 out of 34 forests of cultural, historical, and environmental significance are located in coastal areas and islands.

5.2. Sustainable Harvesting

Some species of seaweed in Vietnam are harvested for use in food, cosmetics, and other products. In order to ensure the sustainable use of these resources, there are efforts to establish sustainable harvesting practices and to manage fisheries to ensure that seaweed populations are not overharvested. Vietnam adopted international standards of the sanitary and phytosanitary (SPS) agreement–based regulation, which includes seaweeds. This established regulation covers a wide range of standards, including ensuring that the seaweeds are disease-, pathogen-, toxin-free, and furthermore that seaweeds meet permissible levels for heavy metals and other contaminants (e.g., pesticides). Vietnam has national regulations for controlling the movement of aquatic aquaculture organisms (quarantine), which also includes the import of live seaweed. For example, Vietnam provided a technical guideline for importing live seaweed, e.g., Gracilaria species [135], and technical requirements for Kappaphycus alvarezii (Table 7).

5.3. Pollution Reduction

Seaweeds are vulnerable to pollution from a variety of sources, and efforts are being made to reduce pollution in Vietnam’s coastal waters in order to protect these ecosystems. This may involve measures such as improving wastewater treatment, regulating industrial discharge, and reducing agricultural runoff. However, no particular reports and regulations were found on pollution reduction in Vietnam’s coastal waters.

5.4. Invasive Species Management

Non-native species of seaweed that are introduced to new areas can outcompete native species and reduce their populations. To address this threat, efforts are being made to control the spread of invasive seaweed species in Vietnam. Circular No. 35/2018/TT-BTNMT dated 28 December 2018 of MONRE stipulates the criteria for the identification and promulgation of a list of invasive alien species. However, the subject only focuses on species that have been announced under the guidance of Circular 35, and the assessed ecosystems are only terrestrial and aquatic. There is almost no information about groups of marine organisms, including seaweed and seagrasses, more specifically, foreign species that are invasive in the sea and by shipping route; there has not been a specific study in Vietnam. In order to prevent the entry of alien organisms in the ballast water environment transported by ships from other sea areas, affecting the ecosystem, economy, and human health and strengthening measures to protect the marine environment, IMO ratified the BWM Convention on 13 February 2004, and the convention met the conditions to enter into force on 8 September 2017. By 8 September 2024, all ships are required to use a ballast water management system (D2). Vietnam is in the process of completing the procedures to join the convention. The basic legal documents related to the activities of dumping garbage and discharging wastewater and ballast water are specified in Article 117 of Decree 58/2017/ND-CP guiding the Vietnam Maritime Code on the management of cargo operations [136].

6. Conclusions: Challenges and Future Directions

Studies conducted in the last decade effectively illustrated the need to combine molecular tools with morphological observations (i.e., habit view, vegetative and reproductive morphology) in (1) the reassessment of marine floral species diversity, (2) previous species names’ validation, (3) misidentification detection, and (4) new species discovery. However, the fairly poor number (15 taxa; 25.4% of the new records and species) of new records and species made over the last 10 years in a “mega-diverse” country raised worrying concerns on the efforts put into the study of marine floral biodiversity. Past molecular-assisted taxonomic efforts have been focused on a limited number of taxa and localities. Currently, three main institutions, including (1) the Institute of Marine Environment and Resources in the North, (2) the Institute of Oceanography in the Central, and (3) the Institute of Tropical Biology in the South, are conducting most studies on marine algae taxonomy nationally. Considering the important length of the Vietnamese coastline (>3200 km), an exhaustive exploration of the Vietnamese marine flora represents a Herculean task for these institutions alone. In addition, the limited number of algal taxonomists in Vietnam and limited funding availability represent a major challenge to the study of marine floral biodiversity. Methodical molecular-assisted re-examination of Vietnam marine floral biodiversity is urgently needed in order to get an accurate picture of biodiversity and endemism, and thereby obtain baseline data for the marine floral management and protection. In particular, future efforts will need to be directed towards specific taxa and regions of Vietnam. Data provided in this review on species diversity, groups targeted with molecular-assisted alpha taxonomic approaches, and spatial variation in biodiversity offer valuable data to orientate future efforts. Finally, a more in-depth investigation of the threats targeting the marine flora of Vietnam is needed, and urgent implementation of measures for its conservation is called for, in particular, the increase in marine protected areas across Vietnam, which represent now less than 1% of the Vietnamese Marine Exclusive Economic Zone.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, C.V., X.-V.N. and M.-L.N.; methodology, M.-L.N., C.V. and X.-V.N.; software, M.-L.N. and C.V.; validation, C.V., M.-L.N. and X.-V.N.; formal analysis, M.-L.N. and C.V.; investigation, M.-L.N., X.-V.N. and C.V.; resources, M.-L.N.; data curation, M.-L.N., M.-S.K., N.-T.N.N., X.-T.N., V.-L.C., X.-V.N. and C.V.; writing—original draft preparation, C.V., M.-L.N. and X.-V.N.; writing—review and editing, C.V., X.-V.N. and M.-L.N.; visualization, C.V., X.-V.N. and M.-L.N.; supervision, C.V. and X.-V.N.; project administration, C.V., X.-V.N. and M.-S.K.; funding acquisition, V.-L.C., X.-V.N., C.V. and M.-S.K. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research was funded by Vietnam Academy of Science and Technology, grant number VAST06.01/22-23; TĐĐTB0.04/21-23. This research was supported by the Basic Science Research Program (2019R1A6A1A10072987) through the National Research Foundation of Korea (NRF) funded by the Ministry of Education of Korea.

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Informed Consent Statement

Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement

Not applicable.

Acknowledgments

This article is part of the results of a PhD program at the Graduate University of Science and Technology so we are deeply indebted to Graduate University of Science and Technology, Vietnam Academy of Science and Technology (VAST), Ha Noi, Vietnam; and all staff at the Institute of Marine Environment and Resources, VAST, Hai Phong, Vietnam. We thank project ĐL000.01/23-24; QTRU04.03/18-19; QTRU02.08/21-22 of Vietnam Academy of Science and Technology for sharing information; Vingroup Innovation Foundation—VinIF grant number VINIF.2022.DA00079 and JSPS CREPSUM collaborative research and education project in Southeast Asia for sustainable use of marine ecosystems. This paper is a contribution to celebrate the 65th anniversary of the Institute of Marine Environment and Resources, Hai Phong, VAST.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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Figure 1. Historical herbarium voucher specimens at Institution of Oceanography—Nha Trang. (A) Laurencia papillosa, (B) Udotea argentea collected at Spratly Archipelago from De Lanessan [15], (C) Grateloupia filicina, and (D) Chnoospora implexa collected by Dawson [16] in Nha Trang.
Figure 1. Historical herbarium voucher specimens at Institution of Oceanography—Nha Trang. (A) Laurencia papillosa, (B) Udotea argentea collected at Spratly Archipelago from De Lanessan [15], (C) Grateloupia filicina, and (D) Chnoospora implexa collected by Dawson [16] in Nha Trang.
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Figure 2. Some recently newly described species and new records made of marine macroalgae from Vietnam. (A) Zellera tawallina Martens collected at Nha Trang Bay; (B) Meristotheca lysonensis Nguyen, Nguyen, Kittle & McDermid collected at Ly Son Island; (C) Dictyota hauckiana Nizamuddin collected at Ninh Thuan; (D) Dictyota grossedentata De Clerck & Coppejans collected at Nha Trang Bay; (E). Phyllymenia huangiae (Lin & Liang) Lin, Rodríguez-Prieto, De Clerck & Guiry collected at Da Nang.
Figure 2. Some recently newly described species and new records made of marine macroalgae from Vietnam. (A) Zellera tawallina Martens collected at Nha Trang Bay; (B) Meristotheca lysonensis Nguyen, Nguyen, Kittle & McDermid collected at Ly Son Island; (C) Dictyota hauckiana Nizamuddin collected at Ninh Thuan; (D) Dictyota grossedentata De Clerck & Coppejans collected at Nha Trang Bay; (E). Phyllymenia huangiae (Lin & Liang) Lin, Rodríguez-Prieto, De Clerck & Guiry collected at Da Nang.
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Figure 3. Distribution of haplotypes of Halymenia malaysiana in Sunda Shelf (Malaysia and Vietnam) and the Philippines [50]. Adapted from Nguyen et al. [50].
Figure 3. Distribution of haplotypes of Halymenia malaysiana in Sunda Shelf (Malaysia and Vietnam) and the Philippines [50]. Adapted from Nguyen et al. [50].
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Figure 4. Spatial variation in marine floral biodiversity (Cyanobacteria, Rhodophyta, Ochrophyta, and Chlorophyta) across countries bordering the South China Sea (East Vietnam Sea). Marine floral biodiversity data based on AlgaeBase [46]. * Data for the Vietnam marine flora based on the current updated checklist. Colors mean blue is Alismatales, green is Chlorophyta, red is Rhodophyta, brown is Ochrophyta, and purple is Cyanobacteria.
Figure 4. Spatial variation in marine floral biodiversity (Cyanobacteria, Rhodophyta, Ochrophyta, and Chlorophyta) across countries bordering the South China Sea (East Vietnam Sea). Marine floral biodiversity data based on AlgaeBase [46]. * Data for the Vietnam marine flora based on the current updated checklist. Colors mean blue is Alismatales, green is Chlorophyta, red is Rhodophyta, brown is Ochrophyta, and purple is Cyanobacteria.
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Figure 5. Cluster analyses of similarity (Bray–Curtis index) for the marine floras of the countries bordering the South China Sea. Data for similarity analyses range between 20 and 100. Hierarchical clustering is based on square-root-transformed presence data and on a resemblance matrix calculated using S17 Bray–Curtis similarity.
Figure 5. Cluster analyses of similarity (Bray–Curtis index) for the marine floras of the countries bordering the South China Sea. Data for similarity analyses range between 20 and 100. Hierarchical clustering is based on square-root-transformed presence data and on a resemblance matrix calculated using S17 Bray–Curtis similarity.
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Figure 6. Spatial variation in marine floral biodiversity across Vietnamese regions. (A) Illustration of the Vietnamese administrative regions and the marine ecoregions sensu Spalding et al. [122] within the Vietnamese Exclusive Economic Zone (VEEZ). (B) Representation of species diversity across marine macroalgal classes (Cyanobacteria, Rhodophyta, Ochrophyta, and Chlorophyta) and depiction of coral reefs, seagrass beds, and marine protected area distributions within the VEEZ; numbers in each region represent the total number of species.
Figure 6. Spatial variation in marine floral biodiversity across Vietnamese regions. (A) Illustration of the Vietnamese administrative regions and the marine ecoregions sensu Spalding et al. [122] within the Vietnamese Exclusive Economic Zone (VEEZ). (B) Representation of species diversity across marine macroalgal classes (Cyanobacteria, Rhodophyta, Ochrophyta, and Chlorophyta) and depiction of coral reefs, seagrass beds, and marine protected area distributions within the VEEZ; numbers in each region represent the total number of species.
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Table
Table 1. List of new species (a) and new records (b) of marine macroalgae found in Vietnam with support from genetic markers and/or morphological observation since 2013. -/-, as above, na: not available. Ref.: reference.
Table 1. List of new species (a) and new records (b) of marine macroalgae found in Vietnam with support from genetic markers and/or morphological observation since 2013. -/-, as above, na: not available. Ref.: reference.
No.PhylumSpeciesPrevious identification in VietnamApplied Genetic MarkersRef.
1 bRhodophytaAmphiroa crassa J.V.Lamouroux na[41]
2 bAntithamnion antillanum Børgesen na-/-
3 bAntithamnionella breviramosa (E.Y.Dawson) Wollaston na-/-
5 bCaulacanthus ustulatus (Turner) Kützing na-/-
4 bCeramium borneense Weber Bosse na[38]
6 bChondrophycus tronoi (Ganzon-Fortes) Nam rbcL[47]
8 bCoelothrix irregularis (Harvey) Børgesen -/-[48]
7 bEndosiphonia horrida (C.Agardh) P.C.Silva na[41]
9 bGelidium crinale var. perpusillum Piccone & Grunow na[38]
10 bGelidium pusillum var. cylindricum W.R.Taylor na[41]
11 bGelidium pusillum var. pacificum W.R.Taylor na[38]
12 bGloiocladia japonica (Okamura) Yoshida na[41]
14 aGracilaria phuquocensis Le, Muangmai & ZuccarelloGracilaria mammillaris (Montagne) M. HowerbcL[49]
13 bGracilaria divergens (C.Agardh) J.Agardh na-/-
15 bHalymenia malaysiana Tan, Lim, Lin & Phang rbcL, COI-5P, 28S[50]
16 bHypoglossum simulans M.J.Wynne, I.R.Price & D.L.Ballantine na[38]
17 bLaurencia natalensis Kylin [48]
19 bMelanothamnus thailandicus (N.Muangmai & C.Kaewsuralikhit) Díaz-Tapia & Maggs rbcL[51]
18 aMeristotheca lysonensis Nguyen, Nguyen, Kittle & McDermid rbcL, COI-5P[52]
20 bParviphycus adnatus (Dawson) SantelicesGelidiella adnata Dawsoncox1, psaA, rbcL[53]
21 aPerronella gracilis Boo, Nguyen, Kim & Boo cox1, psaA, rbcL-/-
24 bPhycocalidia tanegashimensis (I.Shinmura) Santiañez rbcL, COI-5P, 18S[54]
22 bPhyllymenia huangiae (Lin & Liang) Lin, Rodríguez-Prieto, De Clerck & Guiry rbcL, COI-5P[55]
23 bPhyllymenia taiwanensis (Lin & Liang) Lin, Rodríguez-Prieto, De Clerck & Guiry rbcL, COI-5P[56]
25 bPlocamium ovicorne Okamura na[41]
26 bPterocladiella bartlettii (Taylor) Santelices COI-5P, cob, psaA, psbA, rbcL[57]
27 bPterocladiella maribagoensis G.H.Boo & P.J.L.Geraldino -/--/-
28 bPterocladiella musciformis (W.R.Taylor) G.H.Boo & K.A.Miller -/--/-
29 bTitanophora pikeana (Dickie) Feldmann -/-[48]
30 bTylotus lichenoides Okamura -/-[41]
31 bZellera tawallina Martens rbcL, COI-5P[55]
33 bOchrophytaDictyota grossedentata De Clerck & Coppejans rbcL, psbA[55]
34 bDictyota hauckiana Nizamuddin rbcL, psbA[58]
32 bDictyota dichotoma var. intricata (C.Agardh) Greville na[38]
35 bEctocarpus siliculosus (Dillwyn) Lyngbye na[41]
38 bLobophora obscura (Dickie) C.W.Vieira, De Clerck & Payri na[59]
36 bLobophora papenfussii (W.R.Taylor) Farghaly -/-[47]
37 aLobophora tsengii Tien & Sun rbcL, cox3[60]
39 bPadina japonica Yamada na[41]
40 bTurbinaria turbinata (Linnaeus) Kuntze -/-[41]
41 bChlorophytaBoodleopsis pusilla (Collins) W.R.Taylor, A.B.Joly & Bernatowicz -/-[38]
42 bCaulerpa andamanensis (Taylor) Draisma, Prudhomme & Sauvage -/-[48]
Caulerpa chemnitzia var. laetevirens (Montagne) Fernández-García & Riosmena-Rodriguez -/-[41]
43 bCaulerpa calcifolia Harvey & Bailey -/-[48]
44 bCaulerpa sertularioides f. longiseta (Bory) Svedelius -/-[41]
45 bCaulerpa oligophylla Montagne -/-[48]
46 bCladophora gracilis Kützing -/-[41]
47 bCodium intricatum Okamura -/-[38]
48 bChaetomorpha basiretrorsa Setchell -/--/-
49 bParvocaulis exiguus (Solms-Laubach) S.Berger, Fettweiss, Gleissberg, Liddle, U.Richter, Sawitzky & Zuccarello -/--/-
50 aUlva vietnamensis L.-A.T.Tran, Leliaert & De Clerck ITS, rbcL, tufA[61]
51 bUlva aragoënsis (Bliding) Maggs -/--/-
52 bUlva chaugulii Kavale & Kazi -/--/-
53 bUlva kraftiorum Huisman -/--/-
54 bUlva limnetica Ichihara & Shimada -/--/-
55 bUlva meridionalis Horimoto & Shimada -/--/-
56 bUlva ohnoi Hiraoka & Shimada -/--/-
57 bUlva tepida Masakiyo & Shimada -/--/-
58 bUlvella leptochaete (Huber) R.Nielsen, C.J.O’Kelly & B.Wysor na[38]
59 bUlvella scutata (Reinke) R.Nielsen, C.J.O’Kelly & B.Wysor -/-/-/
Table
Table 2. Checklist of the marine flora (Alismatales, Chlorophyta, Cyanobacteria, Ochrophyta, Rhodophyta) of Vietnam. The checklist is systematically and alphabetically arranged at the phylum, ordinal, familial, generic, and species levels.
Table 2. Checklist of the marine flora (Alismatales, Chlorophyta, Cyanobacteria, Ochrophyta, Rhodophyta) of Vietnam. The checklist is systematically and alphabetically arranged at the phylum, ordinal, familial, generic, and species levels.
Species NameRegionally Reported asReferences
CYANOBACTERIA
 Chroococcales
  Chroococcaceae
   Chlorogloea Wille [42]
    Chlorogloea endophytica Howe
   Chroococcus Nägeli
    Chroococcus minor (Kützing) Nägeli [42]
   Entophysalis Kützing
    Entophysalis conferta (Kützing) Drouet & Daily [42]
    Entophysalis granulosa Kützing [42]
   Johannesbaptistia G.De Toni
    Johannesbaptistia primaria (N.L.Gardner) G.De Toni [42]
   Limnococcus (Komárek & Anagnostidis) Komárková, Jezberová, O.Komárek & Zapomelová
    Limnococcus limneticus (Lemmermann) Komárková, Jezberová, O.Komárek & ZapomelováChroococcus limneticus Lemmermann[42,62]
  Gomphosphaeriaceae
   Gomphosphaeria Kützing
    Gomphosphaeria aponina Kützing [42,63]
  Microcystaceae
   Aphanocapsa Nägeli
    Aphanocapsa litoralis Hansgirg [42]
    Aphanocapsa marina Hansgirg [42]
    Aphanocapsa reinboldii (Richter) Komárek & AnagnostidisMicrocystis reinboldii (Richter) Forti[42]
   Merismopedia Meyen
    Merismopedia glauca (Ehrenberg) Kützing [42]
  Pleurocapsaceae
   Chamaecalyx Komárek & Anagnostidis
    Chamaecalyx swirenkoi (Schirschoff) Komárek & Anagnostidis [42]
   Dermocarpella Lemmermann
    Dermocarpella hemisphaerica (Lemmermann) Lemmermann [42]
    Dermocarpella prasina (Reinsch) Komárek & Anagnostidis [42]
   Hyella É.Bornet & C.Flahault
    Hyella caespitosa Bornet & Flahault [42]
   Stanieria J.Komárek & K.Anagnostidis
    Stanieria sphaerica (Setchell & N.L.Gardner) Anagnostidis & Pantazidou [42]
   Tryponema A.Ercegovic
    Tryponema endolithicum Ercegovic [42]
 Chroococcidiopsidales
  Aliterellaceae
   Gloeocapsopsis Geitler ex Komárek
    Gloeocapsopsis crepidinum (Thuret) Geitler ex Kom á rek [42]
 Leptolyngbyales
  Leptolyngbyaceae
   Heteroleibleinia (Geitler) Hoffmann
    Heteroleibleinia infixa (Frémy) Anagnostidis et KomárekLyngbya infixa Frémy[42]
   Leptolyngbya Anagnostidis & Komárek
    Leptolyngbya gracilis (Lindstedt) Anagnostidis & KomárekPhormidium gracile (Rabenhorst ex Gomont) Anagnostidis[42]
    Leptolyngbya rivulariarum (Gomont) Anagnostidis & KomárekLyngbya rivulariarum Gomont[42,63]
   Phormidesmis Turicchia, Ventura, Komárková & Komárek
    Phormidesmis mollis (Gomont) Turicchia, Ventura, Komárková & KomárekPhormidium molle Gomont[42,63]
   Planktolyngbya Anagnostidis & Komárek
    Planktolyngbya limnetica (Lemmermann) Komárková-Legnerová & CronbergLyngbya limnetica Lemmermann[42,63]
  Trichocoleusaceae
   Trichocoleus Anagnostidis
    Trichocoleus tenerrimus (Gomont) AnagnostidisMicrocoleus tenerrimus Gomont[42]
 Nostocales
  Aphanizomenonaceae
   Gloeotrichia J.Agardh ex Bornet & Flahault
    Gloeotrichia intermedia (Lemmermann) Geitler [42,63]
   Hydrocoryne H.Schwabe ex É.Bornet & C.Flahault
    Hydrocoryne enteromorphoides (Bornet & Flahault) Umezaki & M.WatanabeHormothamnion enteromorphoides Grunow ex Bornet & Flahault[42,63]
    Hydrocoryne soluta (Bornet & Grunow) I.UmezakiHormothamnion solutum Bornet & Grunow[42,63]
  Hapalosiphonaceae
   Mastigocoleus Lagerheim ex É.Bornet & C.Flahault
    Mastigocoleus testarum Lagerheim ex Bornet & Flahault [42,63]
  Nostocaceae
   Nostoc Vaucher ex Bornet & Flahault
    Nostoc commune Vaucher ex Bornet & Flahault [42,63]
   Richelia J.Schmidt
    Richelia intracellularis J.Schmidt [42,63]
  Rivulariaceae
   Calothrix C.Agardh ex Bornet & Flahault
    Calothrix aeruginea Thuret ex Bornet & Flahault [42,63]
    Calothrix aeruginosa Woronichin [42]
    Calothrix confervicola C.Agardh ex Bornet & Flahault [42]
    Calothrix contarenii Bornet & Flahault [42,63]
    Calothrix nidulans Setchell & N.L.Gardner [42,63]
    Calothrix parietina Thuret ex Bornet & Flahault [42]
    Calothrix pulvinata C.Agardh ex Bornet & Flahault [42,63]
    Calothrix scopulorum C.Agardh ex Bornet & Flahault [42,63]
   Kyrtuthrix Ercegovic
    Kyrtuthrix maculans (Gomont) I.Umezaki [42,63]
   Microchaete Thuret ex Bornet & C.Flahault
    Microchaete tapahiensis Setchell [42,63]
    Microchaete vitiensis Askenasy ex Bornet & Flahault [42,63]
   Rivularia C.Agardh ex Bornet & Flahault
    Rivularia atra f. hemisphaerica (Bornet & Flahault) Kossinskaja [42,63]
    Rivularia atra var. confluens Bornet [42,63]
    Rivularia australis Harvey ex Bornet & Flahault [42,63]
  Scytonemataceae
   Brachytrichia Zanardini ex Bornet & Flahault
    Brachytrichia lloydii (P.Crouan & H.Crouan) P.C.SilvaBrachytrichia balani Bornet & Flahault[42,63]
    Brachytrichia quoyi Bornet & Flahault [42,63]
  Scytonema C.Agardh ex É.Bornet & C.Flahault
    Scytonema ocellatum Lyngbye ex Bornet & Flahault [42]
  Scytonematopsis Kisseleva
    Scytonematopsis crustacea (Thuret ex Bornet & Flahault) Kováčik & KomárekCalothrix crustacea Thuret ex Bornet & Flahault[42]
    Scytonematopsis pilosa (Bornet & Flahault) Umezaki & M.WatanabeCalothrix pilosa Harvey ex Bornet & Flahault[42,63]
 Oscillatoriales
  Coleofasciculaceae
   Coleofasciculus M.A.Siegesmund, J.R.Johansen & T.Friedl
    Coleofasciculus chthonoplastes (Gomont) M.Siegesmund, J.R.Johansen & T.Friedl Microcoleus chthonoplastes Thuret ex Gomont[42]
  Microcoleaceae
   Leibleinia (M.Gomont) L.Hoffman
    Leibleinia epiphytica (Hieronymus) CompèreLyngbya epiphytica Hieronymus[42,63]
   Lyngbya C.Agardh ex Gomont
    Lyngbya aestuarii Liebman ex Gomont [42,63]
    Lyngbya agardhii Gomont [42,63]
    Lyngbya confervoides C.Agardh ex Gomont [42,63]
    Lyngbya lutea Gomont Porphyrosiphon luteus (Gomont) Anagnostidis & Komárek[42,63]
    Lyngbya majuscula Harvey ex Gomont [42,63]
    Lyngbya martensiana f. tenuivaginata Gomont ex Forti [42,63]
    Lyngbya martensiana Meneghini ex Gomont [42,63]
    Lyngbya meneghiniana Gomont [42,63]
    Lyngbya semiplena J.Agardh ex Gomont [42,63]
    Lyngbya sordida Gomont [42,63]
   Planktothrix Anagnostidis & Komárek
    Planktothrix isothrix (Skuja) Komárek & KomárkováOscillatoria agardhii Gomont[42,63]
   Symploca Kützing ex Gomont
    Symploca hydnoides Kützing ex Gomont [42,63]
  Oscillatoriaceae
   Blennothrix Kützing ex Anagnostidis & Komárek
    Blennothrix cantharidosma (Gomont) Anagnostidis & KomárekHydrocoleum cantharidosmum (Montagne) Gormont)[42,63]
    Blennothrix lyngbyacea (Kützing ex Gomont) Anagnostidis & KomárekHydrocoleum lyngbyaceum Kützing ex Gomont[42,63]
   Oscillatoria Vaucher ex Gomont
    Oscillatoria bonnemaisonii P.Crouan & H.Crouan ex Gomont [42,63]
    Oscillatoria corallinae GomontPhormidium corallinae (Gomont) Anagnostidis & Komárek [42,63]
    Oscillatoria indica P.C.Silva [42,48]
    Oscillatoria limosa C.Agardh ex Gomont [42,64]
    Oscillatoria margaritifera Kützing ex Gomont [42,63]
    Oscillatoria miniata Hauck ex Gomont [42,63,64]
    Oscillatoria princeps Vaucher ex Gomont [42,63]
    Oscillatoria simplicissima GomontPhormidium simplicissimum (Gomont) Anagnostidis & Komárek[42,63]
    Oscillatoria tenuis C.Agardh ex Gomont [42,63]
   Phormidium Kützing ex Gomont
    Phormidium corium Gomont [42,63,64]
    Phormidium feldmannii Frémy [42,63]
    Phormidium jadinianum Gomont [42]
    Phormidium nigroviride (Thwaites ex Gomont) Anagnostidis & Komárek [42,63]
    Phormidium nigrum (Vaucher ex Gomont) Anagnostidis & Komárek [42,63]
    Phormidium salinum (Alten) Anagnostidis & Komárek [48]
 Pleurocapsales
  Dermocarpellaceae
   Dermocarpa P.Crouan & H.Crouan
    Dermocarpa acervata (Setchell & Gardner) Pham-Hoàng Hô [42]
  Hydrococcaceae
   Hydrococcus Kützing
    Hydrococcus rivularis Kützing [42]
 Spirulinales
  Spirulinaceae
   Spirulina Turpin ex Gomont
    Spirulina major Kützing ex Gomont [42,63,64]
    Spirulina subsalsa Oersted ex Gomont [42,63]
    Spirulina subtilissima Kützing ex Gomont [42,63]
    Spirulina tenerrima Kützing ex Gomont [42,63]
 Pseudanabaenales
  Pseudanabaenaceae
   Pseudanabaena Lauterborn
    Pseudanabaena limnetica (Lemmermann) Komárek [42]
RHODOPHYTA
 Acrochaetiales
  Acrochaetiaceae
   Acrochaetium Nägeli
    Acrochaetium barbadense (Vickers) BørgesenAcrochaetium occidentale Børgesen[14,27,38,41,42]
    Acrochaetium catenulatum M.Howe [14,27,38,41,42,64]
    Acrochaetium chaetomorphae (Tanaka & Pham-Hoàng Hô) Heerebout Erythrocladia chaetomorphae T.Tanaka & Pham-Hoàng Hô[14,41,65]
    Acrochaetium colaconemoides Pham-Hoàng Hô [14,41,42]
    Acrochaetium crassipes (Børgesen) Børgesen [14,41]
    Acrochaetium erectum Børgesen [41,42]
    Acrochaetium liagorae Børgesen [27,38,41,42]
    Acrochaetium microscopicum (Nägeli ex Kützing) Nägeli [42]
    Acrochaetium phuquocense Pham-Hoàng Hô [14,41,42,66]
    Acrochaetium polysporum M.Howe [42]
    Acrochaetium pseudoerectum Pham-Hoàng Hô [14,38,41,42,66]
    Acrochaetium pulchellum Børgesen [14,41,42]
    Acrochaetium sanctaemariae (Darbishire) Hamel [14,38,41,42]
    Acrochaetium sanctithomae Børgesen [38,41,42]
    Acrochaetium secundatum (Lyngbye) NägeliAcrochaetium virgatulum (Harvey) Batters[14,41,42]
    Acrochaetium subseriatum Børgesen [14,38,41,42]
   Liagorophila Yamada
    Liagorophila endophytica Yamada Acrochaetium yamadae (Garbary) Y.Lee & I.K.Lee [38,42]
 Ahnfeltiales
  Ahnfeltiaceae
   Ahnfeltia E.M.Fries
    Ahnfeltia plicata (Hudson) E.M.Fries [41,42]
 Bangiales
  Bangiaceae
   Bangia Lyngbye
    Bangia fuscopurpurea (Dillwyn) Lyngbye [14,38,41,42]
    Bangia tanakae Pham-Hoàng Hô Bangia tanakai Pham H.H.[14,38,41,42]
   Phycocalidia Santiañez & M.J.Wynne
    Phycocalidia tanegashimensis (I.Shinmura) Santiañez [54]
    Phycocalidia suborbiculata (Kjellman) Santiañez & M.J.WynnePorphyra suborbiculata Kjellman, Pyropia suborbiculata (Kjellman) J.E.Sutherland, H.G.Choi, M.S.Hwang & W.A.Nelson[14,38,41,42,67]
   Porphyra C.Agardh
    Porphyra tanakae Pham Hoang-HoPorphyra tanaka Pham H.H. [41,42]
   Pyropia J.Agardh
    Pyropia pseudolobata (L.-E.Yang, J.Brodie & Q.-Q.Lu) Santiañez & M.J.WynnePorphyra suborbiculata Kjellman[42,67,68]
    Pyropia vietnamensis (Tak.Tanaka & P.H.Hô) J.E.Sutherland & MonotillaPorphyra vietnamensis Tak.Tanaka & P.H.Hô[38,41,69]
 Bonnemaisoniales
  Bonnemaisoniaceae
   Asparagopsis Montagne
    Asparagopsis taxiformis (Delile) Trevisan [14,27,38,41,64,70,71,72]
 Ceramiales
  Callithamniaceae
   Aglaothamnion Feldmann-Mazoyer
    Aglaothamnion cordatum (Børgesen) Feldmann-MazoyerAglaothamnion neglectum Feldmann-Mazoyer[27,38,41,42]
   Callithamnion Lyngbye [14,38,41,42]
    Callithamnion ramosissimum N.L.Gardner [42]
   Crouania J.Agardh
    Crouania attenuata (C.Agardh) J.Agardh [27,38,41,42]
   Gymnothamnion J.Agardh
    Gymnothamnion elegans (Schousboe ex C.Agardh) J.Agardh [14,38,41,42]
   Spyridia Harvey
    Spyridia filamentosa (Wulfen) Harvey [38,41,42,64,67]
    Spyridia hypnoides (Bory) Papenfuss [38,41,42,64,67]
  Ceramiaceae
   Antithamnion Nägeli
    Antithamnion antillanum Børgesen [38,41,64]
    Antithamnion erucacladellum R.E.Norris [38,41,42,64]
   Antithamnionella Lyle
    Antithamnionella basispora (Tokida & Inaba) Cormaci & G.FurnariAntithamnion basisporum Tokida & Inaba[14,38,41,42]
    Antithamnionella breviramosa (E.Y.Dawson) Wollaston [41]
    Antithamnionella graeffei (Grunow) Athanasiadis [27,41,42]
    Antithamnionella spirographidis (Schiffner) E.M.WollastonAntithamnion spirographidis Schiffner[41,42,63]
   Centroceras Kützing
    Centroceras clavulatum (C.Agardh) Montagne [41,42,68,72]
    Centroceras gasparrinii (Meneghini) KützingCentroceras inerme Kützing[14,38,41,42,64]
   Ceramium Roth
    Ceramium aduncum Nakamura [38,41,42,64]
    Ceramium borneense Weber Bosse [41,42,63]
    Ceramium cimbricum H.E.PetersenCeramium fastigiatum Harvey[14,38,41,42,64]
    Ceramium cingulatum Weber Bosse [14,38,41,42,64]
    Ceramium clarionense Setchell & N.L.Gardner [14,38,41,42]
    Ceramium codii (H.Richards) Mazoyer [41,42,63]
    Ceramium deslongchampsii Chauvin ex Duby [41,42,63]
    Ceramium diaphanum (Lightfoot) RothCeramium gracillimum (Kützing) Zanardini[41,42,63]
    Ceramium macilentum J.AgardhCeramium mazatlanense E.Y.Dawson[27,41,42,64,68,72]
    Ceramium maryae Weber Bosse [14,38,41,42]
    Ceramium procumbens Setchell & N.L.Gardner [38,41,42,64]
    Ceramium tenerrimum (G.Martens) Okamura [41,42,63]
    Ceramium vagans P.C.Silva [41,42,63]
    Ceramium vietnamense Pham-Hoàng Hô [14,38,41,42]
    Ceramium zacae Setchell & N.L.Gardner [41,42,63]
    Corallophila Weber-van Bosse
    Corallophila bella (Setchell & Gardner) R.E.Norris [27,38,41,42]
    Corallophila howei (Weber Bosse) R.E.Norris [14,38,41,42]
    Corallophila huysmansii (Weber Bosse) R.E.NorrisCeramium huysmansii Weber Bosse[14,27,38,41,42]
    Corallophila kleiwegii Weber BosseCorallophila apiculata (Yamada) R.E.Norris[27,41,42,64]
   Gayliella T.O.Cho, L.M.McIvor & S.M.Boo
    Gayliella fimbriata (Setchell & N.L.Gardner) T.O.Cho & S.M.Boo Ceramium fimbriatum Setchell & N.L.Gardner[14,38,41,42]
    Gayliella flaccida (Harvey ex Kützing) T.O.Cho & L.M.McIvor Ceramium flaccidum (Harvey ex Kützing) Ardissone[27]
    Gayliella mazoyerae T.O.Cho, Fredericq & HommersandCeramium gracillimum var. byssoideum Mazoyer[38,41,42]
    Gayliella taylorii (E.Y.Dawson) T.O.Cho & S.M.BooCeramium taylorii E.Y.Dawson[14,38,41,42]
   Reinboldiella De Toni
    Reinboldiella warburgii (Heydrich) Yoshida & Mikami [41,42,63]
  Delesseriaceae
   Acrosorium Zanardini ex Kützing
    Acrosorium polyneurum Okamura [41,42,63]
   Branchioglossum Kylin
    Branchioglossum prostratum C.W.Schneider [27,38,41,42]
   Caloglossa (Harvey) G.Martens
    Caloglossa beccarii (Zanardini) De Toni [42,73]
    Caloglossa bengalensis (G.Martens) R.J.King & Puttock Caloglossa adnata (Zanardini) De Toni[41,42,63]
    Caloglossa continua (Okamura) R.J.King & Puttock [41,42,63]
    Caloglossa leprieurii (Montagne) G.Martens [14,38,41,42]
    Caloglossa ogasawaraensis Okamura [41,42,63]
    Caloglossa saigonensis Tanaka & Pham-Hoàng Hô [41,42,74]
    Caloglossa stipitata E.Post [41,42,63]
   Claudea J.V.Lamouroux
    Claudea batanensis Tanaka [38,41,42]
   Cottoniella Børgesen
    Cottoniella filamentosa (M.Howe) Børgesen [41,42,63]
   Dasya C.Agardh
    Dasya anastomosans (Weber Bosse) M.J.WynneDasyopsis pilosa Weber Bosse; Dasya pilosa (Weber Bosse) A.J.K.Millar[14,38,41,42]
    Dasya crouaniana J.Agardh
    Dasya pedicellata (C.Agardh) C.AgardhDasya baillouviana (S.G.Gmelin) Montagne[14,38,41,42]
    Dasya scoparia Harvey [41,42,63]
   Dictyurus Bory de Saint-Vincent
    Dictyurus occidentalis J.Agardh [41,42,63]
   Hypoglossum Kützing
    Hypoglossum attenuatum N.L.Gardner [14,38,41,42,64]
    Hypoglossum barbatum Okamura [41,42,63]
    Hypoglossum simulans M.J.Wynne, I.R.Price & D.L.Ballantine [41,42,63]
   Martensia K.Hering
    Martensia flabelliformis Harvey ex J.AgardhNeomartensia flabelliformis (Harvey ex J.Agardh) Yoshida & Mikami[41,42,63]
    Martensia fragilis Harvey [38,41,42]
   Nitophyllum Greville
    Nitophyllum adhaerens M.J.Wynne [27,41,42]
   Taenioma J.Agardh
    Taenioma perpusillum (J.Agardh) J.Agardh [41,42,63]
   Zellera G.Martens
    Zellera tawallina G.Martens [55]
  Rhodomelaceae
   Acanthophora J.V.Lamouroux
    Acanthophora muscoides (Linnaeus) Bory [38,41,42,64,67,68]
    Acanthophora spicifera (M.Vahl) Børgesen [27,41,42,64,68,72]
   Acrocystis Zanardini
    Acrocystis nana Zanardini [14,38,41,42]
   Amansia J.V.Lamouroux
    Amansia glomerata C.AgardhMelanamansia glomerata (C. Agardh) R.E. Norris[38,41,42,75]
    Amansia rhodantha (Harvey) J.Agardh [41,42,63]
   Bostrychia Montagne
    Bostrychia moritziana (Sonder ex Kützing) J.Agardh [63]
    Bostrychia radicans (Montagne) Montagne [14,38,41,42]
    Bostrychia tenella (J.V.Lamouroux) J.Agardh [38,41,42,67]
   Bryocladia F.Schmitz
    Bryocladia cervicornis (Kützing) F.Schmitz [14,38,41,42]
   Chondria C.Agardh
    Chondria armata (Kützing) Okamura [41,42,63]
    Chondria baileyana (Montagne) Harvey [14,38,41,42]
    Chondria dangeardii E.Y.Dawson [14,27,38,41,42]
    Chondria repens Børgesen [14,38,41,42,64]
    Chondria ryukyuensis Yamada [41,42,63]
    Chondria simpliciuscula Weber Bosse [27,38,41,42]
   Chondrophycus (J.Tokida & Y.Saito) Garbary & J.T.Harper
    Chondrophycus articulatus (C.K.Tseng) K.W.NamLaurencia articulata C.K.Tseng[14,38,41,42]
    Chondrophycus cartilagineus (Yamada) Garbary & J.T.Harper Laurencia cartilaginea Yamada[14,38,41,42]
    Chondrophycus tronoi (E.Ganzon-Fortes) K.W.Nam [47]
    Chondrophycus undulatus (Yamada) Garbary & Harper [41,42,63]
    Chondrophycus verticillatus (J.F.Zhang & B.M.Xia) K.W.Nam [41,42,63]
   Endosiphonia Zanardini
    Endosiphonia horrida (C.Agardh) P.C.Silva [41,42,63]
   Epizonaria Díaz-Tapia & Maggs
    Epizonaria prostrata (Harvey) Díaz-Tapia & MaggsLophosiphonia prostrata (Harvey) Falkenberg [27,38,41,42]
   Eutrichosiphonia Savoie & G.W.Saunders
    Eutrichosiphonia tapinocarpa (Suringar) D.E.Bustamante & T.O.ChoPolysiphonia tapinocarpa Suringar[41,42,63]
   Exophyllum Weber-van Bosse
    Exophyllum wentii Weber Bosse [41,42,63]
   Herposiphonia Nägeli
    Herposiphonia caespitosa C.K.Tseng [41,42,63]
    Herposiphonia crassa Hollenberg [27,38,41,42]
    Herposiphonia delicatula Hollenberg [27,38,41,42]
    Herposiphonia insidiosa (Greville ex J.Agardh) Falkenberg [14,38,41,42]
    Herposiphonia parca Setchell [27,41,42,64]
    Herposiphonia tenella (C.Agardh) AmbronnHerposiphonia secunda f. tenella (C.Agardh) M.J.Wynne[14,27,38,41,42]
    Herposiphonia vietnamica Pham-Hoàng Hô
   Laurencia J.V.Lamouroux
    Laurencia brachyclados Pilger [41,42,63]
    Laurencia caduciramulosa Masuda & S.Kawaguchi [41,42,63]
    Laurencia calliclada Masuda [41,42,63]
    Laurencia corymbosa J.Agardh [14,38,41,42]
    Laurencia decumbens Kützing [38,41,42]
    Laurencia dendroidea J.AgardhLaurencia majuscula (Harvey) A.H.S.Lucas[38,41,42,64]
    Laurencia filiformis (C.Agardh) Montagne [41,42,63]
    Laurencia galtsoffii M.Howe [41,42,63]
    Laurencia heteroclada Harvey [41,42,63]
    Laurencia intricata J.V.Lamouroux [41,42,63]
    Laurencia lageniformis Masuda & Suzuki [41,42,63]
    Laurencia mariannensis Yamada [41,42,63]
    Laurencia microcladia Kützing [14,38,41,42]
    Laurencia nangii Masuda [28,38,41,42]
    Laurencia natalensis Kylin [41,42,63]
    Laurencia nidifica J.Agardh [41,42,63]
    Laurencia obtusa (Hudson) J.V.Lamouroux [38,41,42]
    Laurencia obtusa var. densa Yamada [41,42,63]
    Laurencia pinnata Yamada [38,41,42]
    Laurencia silvae J.F.Zhang & B.M.XiaLaurencia fasciculata J.F.Zhang & B.M.Xia[41,42,63]
    Laurencia similis K.W.Nam & Y.Saito [41,42,63]
    Laurencia tenera C.K.Tseng [14,38,41,42]
    Laurencia tropica Yamada [38,41,42,67]
   Leveillea Decaisne
    Leveillea jungermannioides (Hering & G.Martens) Harvey [14,27,41,42,67]
   Lophosiphonia Falkenberg
    Lophosiphonia obscura (C.Agardh) Falkenberg [38,41,42]
   Melanothamnus Bornet & Falkenberg
    Melanothamnus ferulaceus (Suhr ex J.Agardh) Díaz-Tapia & Maggs Neosiphonia ferulacea (Suhr ex J.Agardh) S.M.Guimarães & M.T.Fujii[41,42,63]
    Melanothamnus harlandii (Harvey) Díaz-Tapia & MaggsNeosiphonia harlandii (Harvey) M.S.Kim & I.K.Lee[38,41,42]
    Melanothamnus sparsus (Setchell) Díaz-Tapia & MaggsNeosiphonia sparsa (Setchell) I.A.Abbott[27,38,41,42]
    Melanothamnus sphaerocarpus (Børgesen) Díaz-Tapia & Maggs Neosiphonia sphaerocarpa (Børgesen) M.-S.Kim & I.K.Lee[27,41,42,64]
    Melanothamnus tongatensis (Harvey ex Kützing) Díaz-Tapia & MaggsNeosiphonia tongatensis (Harvey ex Kützing) M.-S.Kim & I.K.Lee [14,41,42,64]
    Melanothamnus upolensis (Grunow) Díaz-Tapia & MaggsNeosiphonia upolensis (Grunow) M.S.Kim & Boo [41,42,63]
    Melanothamnus infestans (Harvey) HuismanPolysiphonia infestans Harvey[41]
    Melanothamnus thailandicus (N.Muangmai & C.Kaewsuralikhit) Díaz-Tapia & Maggs [51]
   Neurymenia J.Agardh
    Neurymenia fraxinifolia (Mertens ex Turner) J.Agardh [41,42,63]
   Odonthalia Lyngbye
    Odonthalia corymbifera (S.G.Gmelin) Greville [41,42,63]
   Ohelopapa F.Rousseau, Martin-Lescanne, Payri & L.Le Gall
    Ohelopapa flexilis (Setchell) F.Rousseau, Martin-Lescanne, Payri & L.Le Gall [39,42]
   Palisada K.W.Nam
    Palisada concreta (A.B.Cribb) K.W.Nam [38,41,42]
    Palisada intermedia (Yamada) K.W.Nam [41,42,63]
    Palisada parvipapillata (C.K.Tseng) K.W.Nam [38,41,42]
    Palisada perforata (Bory) K.W.Nam [41,42,63]
    Palisada thuyoides (Kützing) Cassano, Sentíes, Gil-Rodríguez & M.T.Fujii [38,41,42]
    Palisada yamadana (M.Howe) K.W.Nam [38,41,42]
   Polysiphonia Greville
    Polysiphonia coacta C.K.Tseng [14,38,41,42]
    Polysiphonia fragilis Suringar [14,38,41,42]
    Polysiphonia kampsaxii Børgesen [41,42,63]
    Polysiphonia nhatrangense Pham-Hoàng Hô [14,38,41,42]
    Polysiphonia poko HollenbergNeosiphonia poko (Hollenberg) I.A.Abbott[38,41,42]
    Polysiphonia scopulorum Harvey [27,38,41,42,64,69]
    Polysiphonia sertularioides (Grateloup) J.Agardh [41,42,63]
    Polysiphonia subtilissima MontagneNeosiphonia subtilissima (Montagne) M.S. Kim & I.K. Lee[14,27,38,41,42]
    Polysiphonia villum J.AgardhPolysiphonia scopulorum var. villum (J.Agardh) Hollenberg[38,41,42,64]
   Rodriguezella F.Schmitz
    Rodriguezella hongngai Pham-Hoàng Hô [14,38,41,42]
   Symphyocladia Falkenberg
    Symphyocladia marchantioides (Harvey) Falkenberg [41,42,63]
   Tayloriella Kylin
    Tayloriella dictyurus (J.Agardh) Kylin [41,42,63]
   Tolypiocladia F.Schmitz
    Tolypiocladia calodictyon (Harvey ex Kützing) P.C.Silva [41,42,63]
    Tolypiocladia glomerulata (C.Agardh) F.Schmitz [14,27,41,42,67]
   Vertebrata S.F.Gray
    Vertebrata reptabunda (Suhr) Díaz-Tapia & MaggsLophosiphonia reptabunda (Suhr) Kylin[14,38,41,42]
   Womersleyella Hollenberg
    Womersleyella herpa (Hollenberg) R.E.Norris Polysiphonia herpa Hollenberg[14,38,41,42]
  Wrangeliaceae
   Anotrichium Nägeli
    Anotrichium barbatum Nägeli [41,42,63]
    Anotrichium tenue (C.Agardh) NägeliAnotrichium tenue var. thyrsigerum (Thwaites ex Harvey) H.S.Kim & I.K.Lee[27,41,42,64]
   Diplothamnion A.B.Joly & Yamaguishi
    Diplothamnion jolyi C.Hoek [41,42,64]
   Griffithsia C.Agardh
    Griffithsia heteromorpha Kützing [38,41,42,64]
    Griffithsia japonica Okamura [14,27,38,41,42,64,67]
    Griffithsia metcalfii C.K. Tseng [38,41,42,64]
   Haloplegma Montagne
    Haloplegma duperreyi Montagne [41,42,63]
   Monosporus Solier
    Monosporus pedicellatus var. tenuis (Feldmann-Mazoyer) Huisman & Kraft Neomonospora pedicellata var. tenuis Feldmann-Mazoyer[38,41,42]
   Pleonosporium Nägeli
    Pleonosporium borreri (Smith) Nägeli [14,38,41,42]
   Spongoclonium Sonder
    Spongoclonium caribaeum (Børgesen) M.J.WynneMesothamnion caribaeum Børgesen[41,42,63]
   Wrangelia C.Agardh
    Wrangelia argus (Montagne) Montagne [14,38,41,42]
    Wrangelia dumontii (E.Y.Dawson) I.A.Abbott [27,38,41,42]
    Wrangelia tanegana Harvey [38,41,42]
 Colaconematales
  Colaconemataceae
   Colaconema Batters
    Colaconema gracile (Børgesen) Ateweberhan & Prud’homme Acrochaetium gracile Børgesen[14,27,38,41,42]
    Colaconema gracile var. vietnamense Pham Hoang Ho [41,42,63]
    Colaconema hallandicum (Kylin) Afonso-Carrillo, Sanson, Sangil & Diaz-Villa [38,41,42]
    Colaconema hypneae (Børgesen) A.A.Santos & C.W.N.Moura [38,41,42,64]
    Colaconema robustum (Børgesen) Huisman & WoelkerlingAcrochaetium robustum Børgesen; Audouinella robusta (Børgesen) Garbary[14,38,41,42]
    Colaconema thuretii (Bornet) P.W.Gabrielson [38,41,42]
 Compsopogonales
  Compsopogonaceae
   Compsopogon Montagne
    Compsopogon caeruleus (Balbis ex C.Agardh) Montagne [41,42,63]
 Corallinales
  Corallinaceae
   Corallina Linnaeus
    Corallina officinalis Linnaeus [41,42,63]
    Corallina pilulifera Postels & Ruprecht [41,42,63]
   Jania J.V.Lamouroux
    Jania acutiloba (Decaisne) J.H.Kim, Guiry & H.-G.Choi [38,41,42]
    Jania cultrata (Harvey) J.H.Kim, Guiry & H.-G.ChoiCheilosporum cultratum (Harvey) Areschoug
    Jania longiarthra E.Y.Dawson [14,38,41,42]
    Jania micrarthrodia J.V.Lamouroux [38,41,42,64]
    Jania pedunculata var. adhaerens (J.V.Lamouroux) A.S.Harvey, Woelkerling & RviersJania adhaerens J.V.Lamouroux; Jania decussatodichotoma (Yendo) Yendo; Jania capillacea Harvey[27,41,42,64,68,72]
    Jania pumila J.V.Lamouroux [14,27,38,41,42]
    Jania rubens (Linnaeus) J.V.Lamouroux [14,38,41,42]
    Jania spectabilis (Harvey ex Grunow) J.H.Kim, Guiry & H.-G.Choi [38,41,42]
    Jania squamata (Linnaeus) J.H.Kim, Guiry & H.-G.Choi [41,42,63]
    Jania ungulata f. brevior (Yendo) Yendo [27,38,41,42]
   Pneophyllum Kützing
    Pneophyllum confervicola (Kützing) Y.M.ChamberlainHeteroderma minutulum (Foslie) Foslie); Melobesia confervicola (Kützing) Foslie[38,41,42]
  Hapalidiaceae
   Lithothamnion Heydrich
    Lithothamnion erubescens f. subflabellatum Foslie [38,41,42]
  Hydrolithaceae
   Hydrolithon (Foslie) Foslie
    Hydrolithon boergesenii (Foslie) Foslie Hydrolithon reinboldii (Weber Bosse & Foslie) Foslie[14,38,41,42]
    Hydrolithon farinosum (J.V.Lamouroux) Penrose & Y.M.Chamberlain [38,41,42,64]
  Lithophyllaceae
   Amphiroa J.V.Lamouroux
    Amphiroa anceps (Lamarck) Decaisne [41,42,63]
    Amphiroa beauvoisii J.V.Lamouroux [27,41,42,64]
    Amphiroa echigoensis Yendo [41,42,63]
    Amphiroa foliacea J.V.Lamouroux, Bory & Eudes-Deslongchamps [14,27,38,41,42,67]
    Amphiroa fragilissima (Linnaeus) J.V.Lamouroux [27,41,42,64,68,72]
    Amphiroa valonioides Yendo [38,41,42,64]
    Amphiroa crassa J.V.Lamouroux, Bory & Eudes-Deslongchamps [41]
   Lithophyllum Philippi
    Lithophyllum okamurae Foslie [14,38,41,42]
    Lithophyllum pygmaeum (Heydrich) Heydrich [41,42,63]
   Titanoderma Nägeli
    Titanoderma pustulatum (J.V.Lamouroux) Nägeli Lithophyllum pustulatum (J.V.Lamouroux) Foslie[41,42,63]
  Mastophoraceae
   Mastophora Decaisne
    Mastophora pacifica (Heydrich) FoslieLithoporella pacifica (Heyrich) Foslie[38,41,42]
    Mastophora rosea (C.Agardh) Setchell [38,41,42,64,67]
  Mesophyllumaceae
   Melyvonnea Athanasiadis & D.L.Ballantine
    Melyvonnea erubescens (Foslie) Athanasiadis & D.L.Ballantine [41,42,63]
   Mesophyllum Me.Lemoine
    Mesophyllum simulans (Foslie) Me.LemoineLithothamnion simulans (Foslie) Foslie[41,42,63]
  Porolithaceae
   Harveylithon A.Rösler, Perfectti, V.Peña & J.C.Braga
    Harveylithon samoënse (Foslie) A.Rösler, Perfectti, V.Peña & J.C.BragaHydrolithon samoënse (Foslie) Keats & Y.M. Chamberlain[38,41,42,67]
   Metagoniolithon Weber-van Bosse
    Metagoniolithon stelliferum (Lamarck) Ducker [41,42,63]
  Spongitidaceae
   Neogoniolithon Setchell & L.R.Mason
    Neogoniolithon oblimans (Heydrich) P.C.Silva [14,38,41,42]
    Neogoniolithon trichotomum (Heydrich) Setchell & L.R.Mason [41,42,63]
 Erythropeltales
  Erythrotrichiaceae
   Erythrocladia Rosenvinge
    Erythrocladia irregularis Rosenvinge [41,42,63]
  Erythrotrichia Areschoug
    Erythrotrichia carnea (Dillwyn) J.Agardh [14,27,38,41,42]
    Erythrotrichia parietalis T.Tanaka [14,38,41,42]
    Erythrotrichia parietalis var. majuscula T.Tanaka & Pham-Hoàng Hô [41,42,63]
   Sahlingia Kornmann
    Sahlingia subintegra (Rosenvinge) KornmannErythrocladia subintegra Rosenvinge[41,42,63]
 Gelidiales
  Gelidiaceae
   Gelidium J.V.Lamouroux
    Gelidium corneum (Hudson) J.V.Lamouroux [41,42,63]
    Gelidium crinale (Hare ex Turner) Gaillon [14,38,41,42]
    Gelidium crinale var. perpusillum Piccone & Grunow [38,41,42]
    Gelidium divaricatum G.MartensGelidiophycus divaricatus (G.Martens) G.H.Boo, J.K.Park & S.M.Boo[14,38,41,42,76]
    Gelidium fasciculatum Hamel [41,42,63]
    Gelidium minusculum (Weber Bosse) R.E.NorrisGelidium pusillum var. minusculum Weber Bosse [41,42,63]
    Gelidium pulchellum (Turner) Kützing [[4,27,38,41,42]
    Gelidium pusillum (Stackhouse) Le Jolis [27,41,42,64,68,72]
    Gelidium pusillum var. cylindricum W.R.Taylor [41]
    Gelidium pusillum var. pacificum W.R.Taylor [41,42,63]
    Gelidium samoënse Reinbold [41,42,63]
    Gelidium spathulatum (Kützing) Bornet [14,38,41,42]
    Gelidium vietnamense Pham-Hoàng Hô [41,42,63]
  Gelidiellaceae
   Gelidiella Feldmann & G.Hamel
    Gelidiella acerosa (Forsskål) Feldmann & Hamel [14,27,38,41,42,67]
    Gelidiella lubrica (Kützing) Feldmann & Hamel [14,38,41,42]
   Millerella G.H.Boo & S.M.Boo
    Millerella myrioclada (Børgesen) G.H.BooGelidiella myrioclada (Børgesen) Feldmann & Hamel [14,38,41,42]
    Millerella pannosa (Feldmann) G.H.Boo & L.Le GallParviphycus pannosus (Feldmann) G.Furnari[38,41,42,64]
   Parviphycus Santelices
    Parviphycus trinitatensis (W.R.Taylor) M.J.Wynne [41,53]
    Parviphycus adnatus (E.Y.Dawson) B.SantelicesGelidiella adnata E.Y.Dawson[27,38,41,42,53,77]
   Perronella G.H.Boo, T.V.Nguyen, J.Y.Kim & S.M. Boo
    Perronella gracilis G.H.Boo, T.V.Nguyen, J.Y.Kim & S.M. Boo [41,53]
  Pterocladiaceae
   Pterocladia J.Agardh
    Pterocladia heteroplatos (Børgesen) Umamaheswara Rao & KaliaperumalGelidium heteroplatos Børgesen[41,42,63]
   Pterocladiella B.Santelices & Hommersand
    Pterocladiella bartlettii (Taylor) Santelices [57]
    Pterocladiella maribagoensis G.H.Boo & P.J.L.Geraldino [57]
    Pterocladiella musciformis (W.R.Taylor) G.H.Boo & K.A.Miller [57]
    Pterocladiella caerulescens (Kützing) Santelices & Hommersand [27,41,42,64]
    Pterocladiella caloglossoides (M.Howe) Santelices [41,42,63]
    Pterocladiella capillacea (S.G.Gmelin) Santelices & HommersandPterocladia capillacea (S.G. Gmelin) Bornet in Bornet et Thuret
Pterocladia pinnata (Hudson) Papenfuss		[41,42,63]
    Pterocladiella tenuis (Okamura) Shimada, Horiguchi & MasudaPterocladia tenuis Okamura[41,42,63]
 Gigartinales
  Calosiphoniaceae
   Schmitzia P.C.Silva
    Schmitzia japonica (Okamura) P.C.SilvaBertholdia japonica (Okamura) Segawa[41,42,63]
  Caulacanthaceae
   Catenella Greville
    Catenella impudica (Montagne) J.Agardh [41,42,63]
    Catenella nipae Zanardini [41,42,63]
    Catenella subumbellata C.K.Tseng [41,42,63]
   Caulacanthus Kützing
    Caulacanthus ustulatus (Turner) Kützing [41,42,63]
   Montemaria A.B.Joly & Alveal
    Montemaria horridula (Montagne) A.B.Joly & Alveal [14,38,41,42]
  Clavicloniaceae
   Antrocentrum Kraft & Min-Thein
    Antrocentrum nigrescens (Harvey) Kraft & Min-Thein [41,42,63]
  Cystocloniaceae
   Hypnea J.V.Lamouroux
    Hypnea alopecuroides Kützing [41,42,63]
    Hypnea anastomosans Papenfuss, Lipkin & P.C.Silva [41,42,63]
    Hypnea cenomyce J.Agardh [14,38,41,42]
    Hypnea cervicornis J.AgardhHypnea boergesenii T.Tanaka[14,27,38,41,42]
    Hypnea charoides J.V.Lamouroux [41,42,63]
    Hypnea charoides var. indica Weber Bosse [41,42,63]
    Hypnea cornuta (Kützing) J.Agardh [14,38,41,42]
    Hypnea esperi Bory [14,27,38,41,42]
    Hypnea flagelliformis Greville ex J.Agardh [41,42,63]
    Hypnea hamulosa (Esper) J.V.Lamouroux [41,42,63]
    Hypnea japonica Tanaka [41,42,63]
    Hypnea nidulans Setchell [14,27,38,41,42]
    Hypnea pannosa J.Agardh [41,42,68,72]
    Hypnea spinella (C.Agardh) Kützing [14,27,38,41,42]
    Hypnea valentiae (Turner) Montagne [14,27,38,41,42,67,68]
  Dicranemataceae
   Tylotus J.Agardh
    Tylotus lichenoides Okamura [41]
  Dumontiaceae
   Gibsmithia Doty
    Gibsmithia hawaiiensis Doty [41,42,63]
  Endocladiaceae
   Gloiopeltis J.Agardh
    Gloiopeltis furcata (Postels & Ruprecht) J.Agardh [41,42,63]
    Gloiopeltis tenax (Turner) Decaisne [41,42,63]
  Gigartinaceae
   Chondracanthus Kützing
    Chondracanthus acicularis (Roth) FredericqGigartina acicularis (Roth) J.V.Lamouroux[41,42,63]
    Chondracanthus intermedius (Suringar) Hommersand [27,38,41,42,67]
    Chondracanthus tenellus (Harvey) HommersandGigartina tenella Harvey[41,42,63]
  Phyllophoraceae
   Ahnfeltiopsis P.C.Silva & DeCew
    Ahnfeltiopsis chnoosporoides (T.Tanaka & Pham-Hoàng Hô) Masuda [41,42,63]
    Ahnfeltiopsis densa (J.Agardh) P.C.Silva & DeCew Gymnogongrus densus J.Agardh[41,42,63]
    Ahnfeltiopsis flabelliformis (Harvey) Masuda [27,38,41,42,67,68]
    Ahnfeltiopsis pygmaea (J.Agardh) P.C.Silva & DeCew
    Ahnfeltiopsis quinhonensis (Pham-Hoang Ho) Masuda [27,28,38,41,42,67]
    Ahnfeltiopsis serenei (E.Y.Dawson) Masuda [41,42,63]
   Besa Setchell
    Besa divaricata (Holmes) M.S.Calderon & S.M.BooAhnfeltiopsis divaricata (Holmes) Masuda[41,42,63]
   Gymnogongrus C.Martius
    Gymnogongrus griffithsiae (Turner) C.Martius [41,42,63]
    Gymnogongrus johnstonii (Setchell & N.L.Gardner) E.Y.Dawson [41,42,63]
  Rhizophyllidaceae
   Portieria Zanardini
    Portieria hornemannii (Lyngbye) P.C.SilvaDesmia hornemannii Lyngbye[41,42,63]
    Portieria japonica (Harvey) P.C.Silva [41,42,63]
  Solieriaceae
   Betaphycus Doty
    Betaphycus gelatinus (Esper) Doty ex P.C.SilvaEucheuma gelatinum (Esper) J.Agardh[14,26,38,41,42,78]
   Eucheuma J.Agardh
    Eucheuma edule (Kützing) Weber Bosse [41,42,63]
   Kappaphycopsis Dumilag & Zuccarello
    Kappaphycopsis cottonii (Weber Bosse) Dumilag & ZuccarelloKappaphycus cottonii (Weber Bosse) Doty ex H.D.Nguyen & Q.N.Huynh[41,42,63]
   Kappaphycus Doty
    Kappaphycus alvarezii (Doty) L.M.Liao Kappaphycus alvarezii (Doty) Doty ex P.C. Silva[41,42,63]
    Kappaphycus inermis (F.Schmitz) Doty ex H.D.Nguyen & Q.N.Huynh
    Kappaphycus striatus (F.Schmitz) L.M.Liao Kappaphycus striatus (F. Schmitz) Doty ex P.C. Silva[38,41,42]
   Meristotheca J.Agardh
    Meristotheca lysonensis X.-V.Nguyen, X.-T.Nguyen, Kittle & McDermid [52]
   Mimica Santiañez & M.J.Wynne
    Mimica arnoldii (Weber Bosse) Santiañez & M.J.WynneEucheuma arnoldii Weber Bosse[41,42,63]
   Solieria J.Agardh
    Solieria robusta (Greville) Kylin [41,42,63]
   Wurdemannia Harvey
    Wurdemannia miniata (Sprengel) Feldmann & Hamel [38,41,42,67]
 Gracilariales
  Gracilariaceae
   Gracilaria Greville
    Gracilaria arcuata Zanardini [14,23,27,38,41,42,79,80]
    Gracilaria articulata C.F.Chang & B.M.Xia [23,42,79]
    Gracilaria blodgettii Harvey [41,42,63]
    Gracilaria bursa-pastoris (S.G.Gmelin) P.C.Silva [41,42,63]
    Gracilaria canaliculata Sonder [38,41,42]
    Gracilaria changii (B.M.Xia & I.A.Abbott) I.A.Abbott, J.Zhang & B.M.Xia Hydropuntia changii (B.M. Xia & I.A. Abbott) M.J. Wynne[38,42,80]
    Gracilaria chondracantha (Kützing) A.J.K.MillarGracilaria bangmeiana J.Zhang & I.A.Abbott[23,41,42,79]
    Gracilaria confervoides f. ecortica V.M.May [41,42,63]
    Gracilaria coronopifolia J.Agardh [41,42,68,72]
    Gracilaria cuneifolia (Okamura) I.K.Lee & Kurogi [38,41,42]
    Gracilaria divergens (C.Agardh) J.Agardh [41]
    Gracilaria edulis (S.G.Gmelin) P.C.SilvaHydropuntia edulis (S.G.Gmelin) Gurgel & Fredericq [14,27,38,41,42,67,68]
    Gracilaria eucheumatoides HarveyHydropuntia eucheumatoides (Harvey) Gurgel & Fredericq [38,41,42,81]
    Gracilaria firma C.F.Chang & B.-M.Xia Crassiphycus firmus (C.F.Chang & B.-M.Xia) Gurgel, J.N.Norris & Fredericq[23,38,41,42,80]
    Gracilaria fisheri (B.M.Xia & I.A.Abbott) I.A.Abbott, J.Zhang & B.M.XiaHydropuntia fisheri (B.M.Xia & I.A.Abbott) M.J.Wynne[38,41,42,80]
    Gracilaria foliifera (Forsskål) Børgesen [41,42,63]
    Gracilaria gigas Harvey [23,42,79]
    Gracilaria gracilis (Stackhouse) Steentoft, L.M.Irvine & Farnham [41,42,63]
    Gracilaria hainanensis C.F.Chang & B.M.Xia [23,42,79]
    Gracilaria longirostris Zhang & Wang [38,41,42]
    Gracilaria phuquocensis N.H.Le, N.Muangmai & G.C.ZuccarelloGracilaria mammillaris (Montagne) M.Howe[49]
    Gracilaria punctata (Okamura) Yamada [23,42]
    Gracilaria rubra C.F.Chang & B.M.Xia [41]
    Gracilaria salicornia (C.Agardh) E.Y.Dawson [27,41,42,64,67,68,72,80]
    Gracilaria spinulosa (Okamura) Chang & B.-M.Xia [41,42,68,72]
    Gracilaria stellata I.A.Abbott, Zhang & B.M.Xia [41,42,63]
    Gracilaria tenuistipitata C.F.Chang & B.-M.Xia Agarophyton tenuistipitatum (C.F.Chang et B.-M.Xia) Gurgel, J.N.Norris & Fredericq[27,38,41,42,67,80]
    Gracilaria tenuistipitata var. liui Zhang & Xia [41,42,63]
    Gracilaria textorii (Suringar) Hariot Gracilaria textorii (Suringar) De Toni[23,41,42,79,80]
    Gracilaria vermiculophylla (Ohmi) Papenfuss [41,42,63]
    Gracilaria vieillardii P.C.Silva [42,79]
    Gracilaria yamamotoi Zhang & B.M.Xia [41,42,63]
   Gracilariopsis E.Y.Dawson
    Gracilariopsis chorda (Holmes) Ohmi [41,42,63]
    Gracilariopsis heteroclada J.-F.Zhang & B.-M.XiaGracilaria heteroclada J.F.Zhang & B.M.Xia
Gracilariopsis bailiniae J.Zhang & B.M.Xia		[41,42,63]
    Gracilariopsis longissima (S.G.Gmelin) Steentoft, L.M.Irvine & Farnham [41,42,63]
    Gracilariopsis nganii Pham-Hoàng Hô [41,42,63]
    Gracilariopsis nhatrangensis Nhu Hau Le & S.-M.Lin [38,41,42]
    Gracilariopsis phanthietensis Pham-Hoàng Hô [41,42,63]
    Gracilariopsis rhodotricha E.Y.Dawson [14,38,41,42]
   Hydropuntia Montagne
    Hydropuntia divergens (B.M.Xia & I.A.Abbott) M.J.Wynne [41,42,63]
 Halymeniales
  Grateloupiaceae
   Dermocorynus P.Crouan & H.Crouan
    Dermocorynus dichotomus (J.Agardh) Gargiulo, Morabito & ManghisiGrateloupia dichotoma J.Agardh[41,42,63]
   Grateloupia C.Agardh
    Grateloupia asiatica S.Kawaguchi & H.W.Wang [41,42,63]
    Grateloupia divaricata Okamura [14,38,41,42]
    Grateloupia filicina (J.V.Lamouroux) C.Agardh [41,42,68,72]
    Grateloupia lithophila Børgesen [41,42,63]
    Grateloupia livida (Harvey) Yamada [41,42,63]
    Grateloupia phuquocensis Tanaka & Pham-Hoàng Hô [41,42,63]
    Grateloupia porracea Kützing [41,42,63]
    Grateloupia prolongata J.Agardh [41,42,63]
    Grateloupia ramosissima Okamura [38,41,42,67]
   Yonagunia S.Kawaguchi & M.Masuda
    Yonagunia formosana (Okamura) Kawaguchi & MasudaCarpopeltis formosana Okamura
Prionitis formosana (Okamura) Kawaguchi & Nguyen H. Dinh		[14,38,41,42,78]
    Yonagunia ligulata (Harvey ex Kützing) Manghisi, M.Morabito, De Clerck & Le GallPolyopes ligulatus (Harvey ex Kützing) De Toni [41,42,63]
    Yonagunia maillardii (Montagne & Maillardet) Showe M.Lin, Y.-C.Chuang & DeClerckCarpopeltis maillardii (Montagne & Millardet) Chiang[38,41,42]
  Halymeniaceae
   Cryptonemia J.Agardh
    Cryptonemia undulata Sonder [41,42,63]
   Halymenia C.Agardh
    Halymenia dilatata Zanardini [14,27,38,41,42,64,78]
    Halymenia floresii (Clemente) C.Agardh [41,42,63]
    Halymenia harveyana J.AgardhHalymenia floresii subsp. harveyana (J.Agardh) Womersley & Lewis [41,42,63]
    Halymenia maculata J.Agardh [14,27,38,41,42,64,78]
    Halymenia malaysiana P.-L.Tan, P.-E.Lim, S.-M.Lin & S.-M.Phang [50]
   Phyllymenia J.Agardh
    Phyllymenia huangiae (Showe M.Lin & H.-Y.Liang) Showe M.Lin, Rodríguez-Prieto, De Clerck & Guiry Grateloupia huangiae Showe M.Lin & H.-Y.Liang[82]
    Phyllymenia taiwanensis (Showe M.Lin & H.-Y.Liang) Showe M.Lin, Rodríguez-Prieto, De Clerck & GuiryGrateloupia taiwanensis Showe M.Lin & H.Y.Liang[56]
   Prionitis J.Agardh
    Prionitis vietnamensis Pham-Hoàng Hô [41,42,63]
 Hildenbrandiales
  Hildenbrandiaceae
   Actinotrichia Decaisne
    Actinotrichia fragilis (Forsskål) Børgesen [14,27,38,41,42,67]
 Nemaliales
  Galaxauraceae
   Dichotomaria Lamarck
    Dichotomaria marginata (J.Ellis & Solander) Lamarck [41,42,63]
    Dichotomaria obtusata (J.Ellis & Solander) Lamarck [38,41,42]
    Dichotomaria papillata (Kjellman) Kurihara & Masuda [41,42,63]
   Galaxaura J.V.Lamouroux
    Galaxaura divaricata (Linnaeus) Huisman & R.A.Townsend [38,41,42]
    Galaxaura filamentosa R.C.Y.Chou [27,41,42,64,68,72]
    Galaxaura rugosa (J.Ellis & Solander) J.V.Lamouroux [38,41,42]
   Hildenbrandia Nardo
    Hildenbrandia rubra (Sommerfelt) Meneghini [38,41,42,64]
   Tricleocarpa Huisman & Borowitzka
    Tricleocarpa cylindrica (J.Ellis & Solander) Huisman & BorowitzkaGalaxaura fastigiata Decaisne[38,41,42,64,67,83]
    Tricleocarpa fragilis (Linnaeus) Huisman & R.A.Townsend [38,41,42,64]
  Liagoraceae
   Akalaphycus Huisman, I.A.Abbott & A.R.Sherwood
    Akalaphycus setchelliae (Yamada) Huisman, I.A.Abbott & A.R.Sherwood [38,41,42]
   Dermonema Harvey ex Heydrich
    Dermonema pulvinatum (Grunow) Fan [27,38,41,42]
    Dermonema virens (J.Agardh) Pedroche & Ávila Ortíz [38,41,42]
    Dermonema zinovae Nguyen Huu Dinh [41,42,63]
   Ganonema K.-C.Fan & Y.-C.Wang
    Ganonema farinosum (J.V.Lamouroux) K.-C.Fan & Y.-C.Wang [38,41,42,64,67]
    Ganonema pinnatum (Harvey) Huisman [41,42,63]
   Helminthocladia J.Agardh
    Helminthocladia australis Harvey [41,42,63]
   Hommersandiophycus S.-M.Lin & J.M.Huisman
    Hommersandiophycus samaensis (C.K.Tseng) S.-M.Lin & HuismanGanonema samaense (C.K. Tseng) Huisman[38,41,42]
   Izziella Doty
    Izziella orientalis (J.Agardh) Huisman & Schils [38,42]
   Liagora J.V.Lamouroux
    Liagora ceranoides J.V.Lamouroux [14,27,38,41,42]
    Liagora filiformis K.C.Fan & W.H.Li [41,42,63]
    Liagora hawaiiana Butters [41,42,63]
   Neoizziella S.-M.Lin, S.-Y.Yang & Huisman
    Neoizziella divaricata (C.K.Tseng) S.-M.Lin, S.-Y.Yang & Huisman [38,41,42]
   Otohimella Mas.Suzuki
    Otohimella japonica (Yamada) Mas.Suzuki, T.Segawa, Hi.Mori & H.Nozaki Liagora japonica Yamada[41,42,63]
   Titanophycus Huisman, G.W.Saunders & A.R.Sherwood
    Titanophycus validus (Harvey) Huisman, G.W.Saunders & A.R.Sherwood [41,42,63]
  Scinaiaceae
   Scinaia Bivona-Bernardi
    Scinaia boergesenii C.K.Tseng [41,42,63]
  Yamadaellaceae
   Platoma Schousboe ex F.Schmitz
    Platoma cyclocolpum (Montagne) F.Schmitz [41,42,63]
   Yamadaella I.A.Abbott
    Yamadaella caenomyce (Decaisne) I.A.Abbott Liagora caeomyce Decaisne[27,38,41,42]
 Nemastomatales
  Schizymeniaceae
   Titanophora (J.Agardh) Feldmann
    Titanophora pikeana (Dickie) Feldmann [41,42,63]
    Titanophora weberae BørgesenTitanophora pulchra E.Y. Dawson[38,41,42,67]
 Peyssonneliales
  Peyssonneliaceae
   Agissea Pestana, Lyra, Cassano & J.M.C Nunes
    Agissea inamoena (Pilger) Pestana, Lyra, Cassano & J.M.C. Nunes [27,38,41,42]
    Agissea orientalis (Weber Bosse) Pestana, Lyra, Cassano & J.M.C NunesPeyssonnelia rubra f. orientalis Weber Bosse[38,41,42]
   Peyssonnelia Decaisne
    Peyssonnelia boergesenii Weber Bosse [41]
    Peyssonnelia caulifera Okamura [41,42,63]
    Peyssonnelia conchicola Piccone & Grunow [38,41,42,64,67]
    Peyssonnelia rubra (Greville) J.Agardh [14,38,41,42]
   Ramicrusta Zhang Derui & Zhou Jinghua
    Ramicrusta calcea (Heydrich) K.R.Dixon & G.W.SaundersPeyssonnelia calcea Heydrich[14,38,41,42]
   Sonderophycus Denizot
    Sonderophycus capensis (Montagne) M.J.WynnePeyssonnelia gunniana J. Agardh[41,42,63]
 Plocamiales
  Plocamiaceae
   Plocamium J.V.Lamouroux
    Plocamium ovicorne Okamura [41]
 Rhodogorgonales
  Rhodogorgonaceae
   Rhodogorgon J.N.Norris & K.E.Bucher
    Rhodogorgon ramosissima J.N.Norris & BucherRhodogorgon carriebowensis J.N. Norris & Bucher[27,38,41,42]
 Rhodymeniales
  Champiaceae
   Champia Desvaux
    Champia parvula (C.Agardh) Harvey [27,41,42,64,67,68,72]
    Champia salicornioides Harvey [41,42,63]
    Champia vieillardii Kützing [14,27,41]
   Coelothrix Børgesen
    Coelothrix irregularis (Harvey) Børgesen [41,42,63]
  Faucheaceae
   Gloiocladia J.Agardh
    Gloiocladia japonica (Okamura) Yoshida [41]
  Hymenocladiaceae
   Asteromenia Huisman & A.J.K.Millar
    Asteromenia anastomosans (Weber Bosse) G.W.Saunders, C.E.Lane, C.W.Schneider & Kraft [38,41,42]
    Asteromenia peltata (W.R.Taylor) Huisman & A.J.K.Millar [41,42,63]
  Lomentariaceae
   Ceratodictyon Zanardini
    Ceratodictyon intricatum (C.Agardh) R.E.Norris [38,41,42,64]
    Ceratodictyon repens (Kützing) R.E.NorrisGelidiopsis repens (Kützing) Weber Bosse[41,42,63]
    Ceratodictyon scoparium (Montagne & Millardet) R.E.Norris [38,41,42,67]
    Ceratodictyon spongiosum Zanardini [14,27,41,42,67]
    Ceratodictyon variabile (J.Agardh) R.E.Norris [38,41,42]
   Yendoa C.C.Santos, Lyra & J.M.C.Nunes
    Yendoa hakodatensis (Yendo) C.C.Santos, Lyra & J.M.C.NunesLomentaria hakodatensis Yendo[27,38,41,42]
  Rhodymeniaceae
   Botryocladia (J.Agardh) Pfeiffer
    Botryocladia leptopoda (J.Agardh) Kylin [41,42,63]
    Botryocladia skottsbergii (Børgesen) Levring [41,42,63]
   Halichrysis (J.Agardh) F.Schmitz
    Halichrysis micans (Hauptfleisch) P.Huvé & H.Huvé [41,42,63]
   Rhodymenia Greville
    Rhodymenia coacta Okamura & Segawa [41,42,63]
    Rhodymenia intricata (Okamura) Okamura [41,42,63]
    Rhodymenia liniformis Okamura [41,42,63]
 Stylonematales
  Stylonemataceae
   Bangiopsis F.Schmitz
    Bangiopsis dumontioides (P.Crouan & H.Crouan) V.Krishnmurthy [38,41,42]
   Chroodactylon Hansgirg
    Chroodactylon ornatum (C.Agardh) Basson [27,38,41,42]
   Stylonema Reinsch
    Stylonema alsidii (Zanardini) K.M.DrewGoniotrichum alsidii (Zanardini) M. Howe[27,41,42,64]
OCHROPHYTA
 Dictyotales
  Dictyotaceae
   Canistrocarpus De Paula & De Clerck
    Canistrocarpus cervicornis (Kützing) De Paula & De Clerck [38,41,42,64,67,68]
    Canistrocarpus crispatus (J.V.Lamouroux) De Paula & De Clerck [38,41,42]
   Dictyopteris J.V.Lamouroux
    Dictyopteris delicatula J.V.Lamouroux [41,42,63]
    Dictyopteris plagiogramma (Montagne) Vickers [41,42,63]
    Dictyopteris polypodioides (De Candolle) J.V.Lamouroux [38,41,42]
    Dictyopteris woodwardia (R.Brown ex Turner) C.Agardh [38,41,42]
   Dictyota J.V.Lamouroux
    Dictyota adnata Zanardini [41,42,63]
    Dictyota bartayresiana J.V.Lamouroux [38,41,42,64,67,68,72]
    Dictyota ceylanica var. anastomosans Yamada [14,38,41,42]
    Dictyota ciliolata Sonder ex Kützing [38,41,42]
    Dictyota dichotoma (Hudson) J.V.Lamouroux [27,41,42,64]
    Dictyota dichotoma var. intricata (C.Agardh) Greville [41,42,63]
    Dictyota friabilis SetchellDictyota ceylanica var. rotundata Weber-van-Bosse[27,41,42,64]
    Dictyota grossedentata De Clerck & Coppejans [41,42,63]
    Dictyota hauckiana Nizamuddin [58]
    Dictyota implexa (Desfontaines) J.V.LamourouxDictyota divaricata J.V.Lamouroux[38,41,42,64]
    Dictyota mertensii (C.Martius) Kützing [41,42,63]
    Dictyota pinnatifida Kützing [41,42,63]
    Dictyota polyclada Sonder ex Kützing [41,42,63]
    Dictyota spinulosa Hooker f. & Arnott [38,41,42,64,67]
   Distromium Levring
    Distromium decumbens (Okamura) Levring [41,42,63]
   Lobophora J.Agardh
    Lobophora obscura (Dickie) C.W.Vieira, De Clerck & Payri [59]
    Lobophora papenfussii (W.R.Taylor) Farghaly [47]
    Lobophora tsengii D.Tien & Z.Sun [60]
    Lobophora variegata (J.V.Lamouroux) Womersley ex E.C.Oliveira [14,38,41,42]
   Padina Adanson
    Padina antillarum (Kützing) Piccone [38,41,42]
    Padina arborescens Holmes [41,42,63]
    Padina australis Hauck [14,27,38,41,42]
    Padina australis var. cuneata Tak.Tanaka & K.Nozawa [41,42,63]
    Padina boryana Thivy [41,42,72]
    Padina gymnospora (Kützing) Sonder [41,42,68,72]
    Padina japonica Yamada [41,42,63]
    Padina minor Yamada [41,42,63]
    Padina tetrastromatica Hauck [41,42,63]
   Spatoglossum Kützing
    Spatoglossum schroederi (C.Agardh) Kützing [41,42,63]
    Spatoglossum stipitatum (Tanaka & K.Nozawa) Bittner et al. [38,41,42]
    Spatoglossum vietnamense Pham-Hoàng Hô [14,38,41,42]
   Stypopodium Kützing
    Stypopodium zonale (J.V.Lamouroux) Papenfuss [41,42,63]
 Ectocarpales
  Acinetosporaceae
   Feldmannia Hamel
    Feldmannia filifera (Børgesen) Pham-Hoàng Hô [41,42,63]
    Feldmannia indica (Sonder) Womersley & A.BaileyHincksia indica (Sonder) J.Tanaka[38,41,42]
    Feldmannia irregularis (Kützing) Hamel [14,38,41,42]
    Feldmannia mitchelliae (Harvey) H.-S.KimHincksia mitchelliae (Harvey) P.C.Silva[27,41,42,64]
   Herponema J.Agardh
    Herponema zeylanicum (Børgesen) Krishnamurthy & Baluswami [41,42,63]
   Pylaiella Bory de Saint-Vincent
    Pylaiella littoralis (Linnaeus) Kjellman [41,42,63]
  Chordariaceae
   Acrothrix Kylin
    Acrothrix pacifica Okamura & Yamada [41,42,63]
   Chilionema Sauvageau
    Chilionema ocellatum (Kützing) Kornmann [14,38,41,42]
   Hecatonema Sauvageau
    Hecatonema enhali (Børgesen) M.S.Balakrishnan & V.N.Kinkar [41,42,63]
   Kuetzingiella Kornmann
    Kuetzingiella elachistiformis (Heydrich) M.Balakrishnan & Kinkar [27,38,41,42,67]
   Myrionema Greville
    Myrionema strangulans Greville [41,42,63]
   Nemacystus Derbès & Solier
    Nemacystus decipiens (Suringar) Kuckuck [41,42,63]
  Ectocarpaceae
   Ectocarpus Lyngbye
    Ectocarpus siliculosus (Dillwyn) Lyngbye [41]
    Ectocarpus siliculosus f. sporangioramosus A.D.Zinova & Nguyen Huu Dinh [41,42,63]
    Ectocarpus siliculosus var. dasycarpus (Kuckuck) Gallardo [41,42,63]
    Ectocarpus vungtauensis Pham-Hoàng Hô [41,42,63]
  Scytosiphonaceae
   Chnoospora J.Agardh
    Chnoospora minima (Hering) Papenfuss [38,41,42,67]
   Colpomenia (Endlicher) Derbès & Solier
    Colpomenia sinuosa (Mertens ex Roth) Derbès & Solier [41,42,68,72]
   Dactylosiphon Santiañez, K.M.Lee, S.M.Boo & Kogame
    Dactylosiphon bullosus (D.A.Saunders) Santiañez, K.M.Lee, S.M.Boo & Kogame [41,42,63]
   Hydroclathrus Bory
    Hydroclathrus clathratus (C.Agardh) M.Howe [38,41,42,67]
    Hydroclathrus tenuis C.K.Tseng & Lu Baroen [38,41,42]
   Petalonia Derbès & Solier
    Petalonia fascia (O.F.Müller) Kuntze [41,42,63]
   Pseudochnoospora Santiañez, G.Y.Cho & Kogame
    Pseudochnoospora implexa (J.Agardh) Santiañez, G.Y.Cho & KogameChnoospora implexa J.Agardh[14,27,38,41,42,67]
   Rosenvingea Børgesen
    Rosenvingea endiviifolia (Martius) M.J.Wynne [27,41,42,64,68,72,84]
    Rosenvingea fastigiata (Zanardini) Børgesen [38,41,42]
    Rosenvingea nhatrangensis E.Y.Dawson [38,41,42,67]
    Rosenvingea orientalis (J.Agardh) Børgesen [14,38,41,42,84]
   Scytosiphon C.Agardh
    Scytosiphon lomentaria (Lyngbye) Link [41,42,63]
 Fucales
  Sargassaceae
   Hormophysa Kützing
    Hormophysa cuneiformis (J.F.Gmelin) P.C.Silva [41,42,63]
   Sargassum C.Agardh
    Sargassum aemulum var. carpophylloides Grunow [41,42,63]
    Sargassum aemulum var. jouanii Grunow [41,42,63]
    Sargassum angustifolium C.Agardh [42,85]
    Sargassum aquifolium (Turner) C.Agardh [41,42,85]
    Sargassum armatum J.Agardh [41,42,63]
    Sargassum assimile Harvey [41,42,63]
    Sargassum baccularia (Mertens) C.Agardh [41,42,63]
    Sargassum bangmeianum Nguyen Huu Dinh & Huynh Quang Nang [38,41,42]
    Sargassum baorenii Nguyen Huu Dinh & Huynh Quang Nang [38,41,42]
    Sargassum bicorne J.Agardh [20,38,41,42,85]
    Sargassum brevifolium var. pergracile Grunow [41,42,63]
    Sargassum bulbiferum Yoshida [41,42,63]
    Sargassum buui Nguyen Huu Dinh & Huynh Quang Nang [38,41,42]
    Sargassum capillare Kützing [41,42,63]
    Sargassum carpophyllum J.Agardh [20,38,41,42]
    Sargassum carpophyllum var. honomense Nguyen Huu Dinh & Huynh Quang Nang [41,42,63]
    Sargassum carpophyllum var. nhatrangense (Pham-Hoang Ho) Ajisaka [41,42,63]
    Sargassum cinereum J.Agardh [41,42,63]
    Sargassum confusum C.Agardh [41,42,63]
    Sargassum congkinhii Pham-Hoàng Hô [20,38,41,42,85]
    Sargassum cornutifructum Nguyen Huu Dinh & Huynh Quang Nang [41,42,63]
    Sargassum cotoense Nguyen Huu Dai [41,42,63]
    Sargassum cymosum C.Agardh [42,85]
    Sargassum denticarpum Ajisaka [41,42,63]
    Sargassum distichum Sonder [38,41,42]
    Sargassum emarginatum C.K.Tseng & Lu Baroen [38,41,42]
    Sargassum feldmannii Pham-Hoàng Hô [38,41,42,85]
    Sargassum flavicans (Mertens) C.Agardh [38,41,42,85]
    Sargassum glaucescens J.Agardh [38,41,42,85]
    Sargassum gracillimum Reinbold [41,42,63]
    Sargassum graminifolium C.Agardh [41,42,63]
    Sargassum hemiphyllum (Turner) C.Agardh [14,38,41,42]
    Sargassum henslowianum J.Agardh [38,41,42,85]
    Sargassum henslowianum var. bellonae Grunow [41,42,63]
    Sargassum herklotsii Setchell [41,42,63]
    Sargassum hieui Nguyen Huu Dinh & Huynh Quang Nang [38,41,42]
    Sargassum ilicifolioides Tseng & Lu [41,42,63]
    Sargassum ilicifolium (Turner) C.Agardh [20,38,41,42,85]
    Sargassum incanum Grunow [42,85]
    Sargassum kuetzingii Setchell [20,38,41,42,85]
    Sargassum longifructum C.K.Tseng & B.Lu [38,41,42,85]
    Sargassum mcclurei f. duplicatum A.D.Zinova & Nguyen Huu Dinh [41,42,63]
    Sargassum mcclurei Setchell [20,41,42,64,68,72]
    Sargassum microcystum J.Agardh [27,41,42,64,68,72,85]
    Sargassum miyabei Yendo [38,41,42,64,67,68]
    Sargassum namoense Nguyen Huu Dai [42,85]
    Sargassum natans (Linnaeus) Gaillon [38,41,42]
    Sargassum nipponicum Yendo [41,42,63]
    Sargassum oligocystum Montagne [20,27,38,41,42,67,85]
    Sargassum paniculatum J.Agardh [42,85]
    Sargassum parvifolium (Turner) C.Agardh [41,42,63]
    Sargassum parvivesiculosum C.K.Tseng & B.Lu [41,42,63]
    Sargassum phamhoangii Nguyen Huu Dai [41,42,63]
    Sargassum phyllocystum C.K.Tseng & Lu Baroen [41,42,63]
    Sargassum piluliferum (Turner) C.Agardh [42,86]
    Sargassum piluliferum var. serratifolium Yamada [42,85]
    Sargassum polycystum C.Agardh [27,41,42,64,67,68,72,85]
    Sargassum polyporum Montagne [42,85]
    Sargassum quinhonense Nguyen Huu Dai [41,42,63]
    Sargassum segii Yoshida [41,42,63]
    Sargassum serratum Nguyen Huu Dai [38,41,42,85]
    Sargassum siliquosum J.Agardh [38,41,42,85]
    Sargassum subtilissimum C.K.Tseng & B.Lu [41,42,63]
    Sargassum swartzii C.Agardh [38,41,42,67,85]
    Sargassum tenerrimum J.Agardh [41,42,63]
    Sargassum tsengii Nguyen Huu Dinh & Huynh Quang Nang [38,41,42]
    Sargassum turbinarioides Grunow [41,42,63]
    Sargassum vachellianum Greville [42,85]
    Sargassum vietnamense A.D.Zinova & Dinh [42,85]
    Sargassum virgatum C.Agardh [38,41,42,85]
   Turbinaria J.V.Lamouroux
    Turbinaria conoides (J.Agardh) Kützing [41,42,63]
    Turbinaria decurrens Bory [41,42,63]
    Turbinaria gracilis Sonder [20,38,41,42,85]
    Turbinaria ornata (Turner) J.Agardh [41,42,68,72]
    Turbinaria ornata var. prolifera Pham Hoàng Hô [41,42,63]
    Turbinaria parvifolia C.K.Tseng & Lu Baroen [41,42,63]
    Turbinaria turbinata (Linnaeus) Kuntze [41,42,63]
 Ishigeales
  Petrodermataceae
   Petroderma Kuckuck
    Petroderma vietnamense Pham-Hoàng Hô [41,42,63]
 Ralfsiales
  Mesosporaceae
   Mesospora Weber-van Bosse
    Mesospora schmidtii Weber Bosse [38,41,42]
  Neoralfsiaceae
   Neoralfsia P.-E.Lim & H.Kawai
    Neoralfsia expansa (J.Agardh) P.-E.Lim & H.Kawai ex Cormaci & G.Furnari [38,41,42,64]
  Pseudoralfsiaceae
   Pseudoralfsia Parente, Fletcher & G.W.Saunders
    Pseudoralfsia verrucosa (Areschoug) Parente, Fletcher & G.W.SaundersRalfsia verrucosa (Areschoug) Areschoug[41,42,63]
  Ralfsiaceae
   Ralfsia Berkeley
    Ralfsia fungiformis (Gunnerus) Setchell & N.L.Gardner [41,42,63]
 Scytothamnales
  Asteronemataceae
   Asteronema Delépine & Asensi
    Asteronema breviarticulatum (J.Agardh) Ouriques & Bouzon [38,41,42,64]
 Sphacelariales
  Sphacelariaceae
   Sphacelaria Lyngbye
    Sphacelaria carolinensis Trono [41,42,63]
    Sphacelaria ceylanica Sauvageau [41,42,63]
    Sphacelaria novae-hollandiae Sonder [14,27,38,41,42]
    Sphacelaria rigidula KützingSphacelaria divaricata Montagne[27,41,42,64]
    Sphacelaria solitaria (Pringsheim) Kylin [41,42,63]
    Sphacelaria tribuloides Meneghini [14,27,38,41,42]
CHLOROPHYTA
 Bryopsidales
  Bryopsidaceae
   Bryopsis J.V.Lamouroux
    Bryopsis chapmanii Molinari & Guiry [87]
    Bryopsis hypnoides J.V. Lamouroux [41,42,63]
    Bryopsis indica A. Gepp & E.S. Gepp [14,38,41,42,87]
    Bryopsis pennata J.V. Lamouroux [27,38,41,42,64,87]
    Bryopsis pennata var. secunda (Harvey) Collins & Hervey [41,42,63]
    Bryopsis plumosa (Hudson) C. Agardh [27,38,41,42,64,87]
   Trichosolen Montagne
    Trichosolen mucronatus (Børgesen) W.R. Taylor [41,42,63]
    Trichosolen parvus (E.Y. Dawson) W.R. TaylorPseudobryopsis parva E.Y.Dawson[20,38,41,42,87]
  Caulerpaceae
   Caulerpa J.V.Lamouroux
    Caulerpa ambigua OkamuraCaulerpella ambigua (Okamura) Prud’homme & Lokhorst[14,38,41,42,87]
    Caulerpa andamanensis (W.R.Taylor) Draisma, Prudhomme & Sauvage [41,42,63]
    Caulerpa ashmeadii Harvey [42,87]
    Caulerpa brachypus Harvey [41,42,63]
    Caulerpa chemnitzia (Esper) J.V.LamourouxCaulerpa peltata J.V.Lamouroux; Caulerpa racemosa var. occidentalis (J.Agardh) Børgesen; Caulerpa racemosa var. peltata (J.V.Lamouroux) Eubank[41]
    Caulerpa chemnitzia var. laetevirens (Montagne) Fernández-García & Riosmena-Rodriguez [41,42,63]
    Caulerpa corynephora Montagne [41,42,63]
    Caulerpa cupressoides (Vahl) C. Agardh [27,38,41,42,67,87]
    Caulerpa cupressoides var. flabellata Børgesen [41]
    Caulerpa cupressoides var. lycopodium Weber Bosse [41,42,63]
    Caulerpa cupressoides var. mamillosa (Montagne) Weber Bosse [41,42,63]
    Caulerpa falcifolia Harvey & Bailey [41,42,63]
    Caulerpa fastigiata Montagne [14,38,41,42,67,87]
    Caulerpa lamourouxii (Turner) C.AgardhCaulerpa racemosa var. lamourouxii (Turner) Weber Bosse
    Caulerpa lentillifera J. Agardh [38,41,42,87]
    Caulerpa macrodisca DecaisneCaulerpa peltata var. macrodisca (Decaisne) Weber Bosse[14,38,41,42,87]
    Caulerpa mexicana f. vietnamica Pham H.H. [41,42,63]
    Caulerpa mexicana Sonder ex Kützing [41,42,63]
    Caulerpa microphysa (Weber Bosse) Feldmann [38,41,42,64,87]
    Caulerpa minuta L.N.Hau [39]
    Caulerpa nummularia Harvey ex J. Agardh [38,41,42,64,67,68]
    Caulerpa oligophylla Montagne [41,42,63]
    Caulerpa racemosa (Forsskål) J. Agardh [14,27,38,41,42,67,87]
    Caulerpa racemosa f. vietnamensis A.D. Zinova & Nguyen H. Dinh [42,87]
    Caulerpa racemosa var. macrophysa (Sonder ex Kützing) W.R. TaylorCaulerpa macrophysa (Sonder ex Kützing) G.Murray[14,27,38,41,42,67,87]
    Caulerpa scalpelliformis (R. Brown ex Turner) C. Agardh [42,87]
    Caulerpa serrulata (Forsskål) J. AgardhCaulerpa freycinetii C.Agardh[14,27,38,41,42,67,68,72]
    Caulerpa serrulata f. lata (Weber Bosse) C.K. Tseng [41,42,64]
    Caulerpa serrulata var. boryana (J. Agardh) Gilbert [41,42,63]
    Caulerpa sertularioides (S.G. Gmelin) M. Howe [41,42,63]
    Caulerpa sertularioides f. longipes (J. Agardh) Collins [41]
    Caulerpa taxifolia (Vahl) C. Agardh [41,42,63]
    Caulerpa urvilleana MontagneCaulerpa cupressoides var. urvilleana (Montagne) L.M.Hodgson, P.H. Tri, K.Lewmanomont & K.J. McDermid[41,42,63]
    Caulerpa verticillata J. Agardh [14,27,38,41,42,87]
    Caulerpa verticillata f. charoides Weber Bosse [41,42,63]
    Caulerpa webbiana Montagne [41,42,63]
    Caulerpa webbiana f. tomentella (Harvey ex J. Agardh) Weber Bosse [41,42,63]
    Caulerpa sertularioides f. longiseta (Bory) Svedelius [41,42,63]
  Codiaceae
   Codium Stackhouse
    Codium adhaerens C. Agardh [14,38,41,42,87]
    Codium arabicum Kützing [14,38,41,42,67,87]
    Codium cylindricum Holmes [41,42,63]
    Codium duthieae P.C. Silva [42,87]
    Codium formosanum Yamada [41,42,63]
    Codium geppiorum O.C. Schmidt [27,38,41,42,64,87]
    Codium intricatum Okamura [41,42,63]
    Codium isthmocladum Vickers
    Codium mamillosum Harvey [38]
    Codium repens P.L. Crouan & H.M. Crouan [38,41,42,64,67,87]
    Codium tomentosum Stackhouse [41,42,63]
   Geppella Børgesen
    Geppella prolifera C.K. Tseng & M.L. Dong [41,42,63]
  Derbesiaceae
   Derbesia Solier
    Derbesia attenuata E.Y. Dawson [14,27,38,41,42,87]
    Derbesia marina (Lyngbye) Solier [42,87]
   Halicystis Areschoug
    Halicystis pyriformis Levring [41,42,63]
  Dichotomosiphonaceae
   Avrainvillea Decaisne
    Avrainvillea amadelpha (Montagne) A. Gepp & E. Gepp [41,42,63]
    Avrainvillea erecta (Berkeley) A. Gepp & E. Gepp [14,38,41,42,67,87]
    Avrainvillea lacerata Harvey ex J. Agardh [41,42,63]
    Avrainvillea obscura (C. Agardh) J. AgardhAvrainvillea capituliformis T.Tanaka[41,42,63]
  Halimedaceae
   Boodleopsis A.Gepp & E.S.Gepp
    Boodleopsis pusilla (Collins) W.R.Taylor, A.B.Joly & Bernatowicz [41,42,63]
   Chlorodesmis Harvey & Bailey
    Chlorodesmis hildebrandtii A. Gepp & E. Gepp [14,38,41,42,87]
   Halimeda J.V.Lamouroux
    Halimeda cuneata f. digitata E.S. Barton [14,38,41,42]
    Halimeda cuneata Hering [41,42,63]
    Halimeda cylindracea Decaisne [41,42,63]
    Halimeda discoidea Decaisne [14,27,41,42,67,87]
    Halimeda gracilis Harvey ex J. Agardh [38,41,42]
    Halimeda incrassata (J. Ellis) J.V. Lamouroux [14,38,41,42,87]
    Halimeda macroloba Decaisne [41,42,63]
    Halimeda micronesica Yamada [41,42,63]
    Halimeda opuntia (Linnaeus) J.V. Lamouroux [14,27,38,41,42,67,68,72,87]
    Halimeda taenicola W.R. Taylor
    Halimeda tuna (J. Ellis et Solander) J.V. Lamouroux [14,38,41,42,87]
    Halimeda velasquezii W.R. Taylor [41,42,63]
    Halimeda xishaensis C.K. Tseng & M.L. Dong [41,42,63]
   Penicillus Lamarck
    Penicillus sibogae A. Gepp & E. Gepp [14,38,41,42,87]
   Pseudochlorodesmis Børgesen
    Pseudochlorodesmis furcellata (Zanardini) Børgesen [14,38,41,42,87]
   Rhipidosiphon Montagne
    Rhipidosiphon javensis MontagneUdotea javensis (Montagne) A.Gepp & E.S.Gepp[14,38,41,42,87]
   Rhipiliopsis A.Gepp & E.S.Gepp
    Rhipiliopsis echinocaulos (A.B. Cribb) Farghaly [41,42,63]
   Tydemania Weber Bosse
    Tydemania expeditionis Weber Bosse [41,42,63]
   Udotea J.V.Lamouroux
    Udotea argentea Zanardini [41,42,63]
    Udotea flabellum (J. Ellis & Solander) M. Howe [41,42,63]
    Udotea orientalis A. Gepp & E. Gepp [41,42,63]
    Udotea velutina C.K. Tseng & M.L. Dong [41,42,63]
  Ostreobiaceae
   Ostreobium Bornet & Flahault
    Ostreobium quekettii Bornet & Flahault [38,41,42]
  Pseudobryopsidaceae
   Pseudobryopsis Berthold
    Pseudobryopsis hainanensis C.K. Tseng [41,42,63]
 Cladophorales
  Anadyomenaceae
   Anadyomene J.V.Lamouroux
    Anadyomene plicata C.Agardh [14,38,41,42,67,87]
    Anadyomene wrightii Harvey ex J.E. Gray [14,27,41,42,67,87]
   Microdictyon Decaisne
    Microdictyon japonicum Setchell [27,38,41,42,67]
    Microdictyon nigrescens (Yamada) Setchell [42,87]
    Microdictyon okamurae Setchell [38,41,42,64,87]
    Microdictyon vanbosseae Setchell [42,87]
  Boodleaceae
   Boodlea G.Murray & De Toni
    Boodlea coacta (Dickie) G. Murray & De Toni [41,42,63]
    Boodlea composita (Harvey) F. Brand [14,27,38,41,42]
    Boodlea struveoides M. Howe [38,41,42,64,87]
   Cladophoropsis Børgesen
    Cladophoropsis fasciculata (Kjellman) Wille [38,41,42,64]
    Cladophoropsis membranacea (Hofman ex C. Agardh) Børgesen [14,27,38,41,42,87]
    Cladophoropsis phamhoanghoii Molinari & Guiry [14,27,38,41,42,87]
    Cladophoropsis vaucheriiformis (Areschoug) Papenfuss [14,27,38,41,42,87]
   Phyllodictyon J.E.Gray
    Phyllodictyon anastomosans (Harvey) Kraft & M.J. [38,41,42,64]
  Cladophoraceae
   Chaetomorpha Kützing
    Chaetomorpha aerea (Dillwyn) KützingChaetomorpha crassa (C.Agardh) Kützing[14,38,41,42,87]
    Chaetomorpha antennina (Bory) Kützing [38,41,42,87]
    Chaetomorpha basiretrorsa Setchell [41,42,63]
    Chaetomorpha gracilis Kützing [41,42,63]
    Chaetomorpha indica (Kützing) Kützing [38,41,42,64,87]
    Chaetomorpha javanica Kützing [41,42,63]
    Chaetomorpha linum (O.F. Müller) Kützing [41,42,63]
    Chaetomorpha pachynema (Montagne) Kützing [42,87]
    Chaetomorpha spiralis Okamura [38,41,42,87]
    Chaetomorpha tortuosa (Dillwyn) Kleen [42,87]
   Cladophora Kützing
    Cladophora adhaerens Harvey [41,42,63]
    Cladophora albida (Nees) Kützing [41,42,63]
    Cladophora aokii Yamada [41,42,63]
    Cladophora catenata (Linnaeus) Kützing [38,41,42]
    Cladophora coelothrix Kützing [41,42,63]
    Cladophora crispula Vickers [41,42,63]
    Cladophora flexuosa (O.F. Müller) Kützing [38,41,42,64]
    Cladophora glomerata (Linnaeus) Kützing [41,42,63]
    Cladophora gracilis Kützing [41,42,63]
    Cladophora laetevirens (Dillwyn) Kützing [27,38,41,42,64,87]
    Cladophora papenfussii Pham H.H. [41,42,63]
    Cladophora patentiramea (Montagne) Kützing [41,42,63]
    Cladophora perpusilla Skottsberg &Levring [38,41,42,87]
    Cladophora prolifera (Roth) Kützing [38,41,42]
    Cladophora rugulosa G.Martens [41,42,63]
    Cladophora sericea (Hudson) Kützing [41,42,63]
    Cladophora socialis Kützing [14,27,38,41,42]
    Cladophora stimpsonii Harvey [42,87]
    Cladophora vagabunda (Linnaeus) C. HoekCladophora uncinella Harvey; Cladophora inserta f. ungulata (Brand) Setchell)[27,38,41,42,67,68]
   Lychaete J.Agardh
    Lychaete herpestica (Montagne) M.J.Wynne [38,42]
    Lychaete pellucida (Hudson) M.J.Wynne [42,87]
    Lychaete sakaii (I.A.Abbott) M.J.Wynne [41,42,63]
   Rhizoclonium Kützing
    Rhizoclonium grande Børgesen [14,38,41,42,87]
    Rhizoclonium riparium (Roth) Harvey Rhizoclonium implexum (Dillwyn) Kützing[38,41,42,64,87]
  Siphonocladaceae
   Boergesenia J.Feldmann
    Boergesenia forbesii (Harvey) Feldmann [14,38,41,42,87]
   Dictyosphaeria Decaisne
    Dictyosphaeria cavernosa (Forsskål) Børgesen [14,27,41,42,67,87]
    Dictyosphaeria spinifera C.K. Tseng & C.F. Chang [42,87]
    Dictyosphaeria versluysii Weber Bosse [14,27,38,41,42]
  Valoniaceae
   Valonia C.Agardh
    Valonia aegagropila C. Agardh [14,38,41,42,67,87]
    Valonia fastigiata Harvey ex J. Agardh [14,38,41,42,67,87]
    Valonia macrophysa Kützing
    Valonia utricularis (Roth) C. Agardh [14,38,41,42,67,87]
    Valonia ventricosa J. Agardh [41,42,63]
   Valoniopsis Børgesen
    Valoniopsis pachynema (G. Martens) Børgesen [41,42,63]
 Dasycladales
  Bornetellaceae
   Bornetella Munier-Chalmas
    Bornetella nitida Munier-Chalmas ex Sonder [41,42,63]
    Bornetella oligospora Solms-Laubach [41,42,63]
    Bornetella sphaerica (Zanardini) Solms-Laubach [14,38,41,42,67,87]
  Dasycladaceae
   Neomeris J.V.Lamouroux
    Neomeris annulata Dickie [14,27,41,42,67,87]
    Neomeris bilimbata J.T. Koster [38,41,42,64,87]
    Neomeris vanbosseae M. Howe [14,27,41,42,67,87]
  Polyphysaceae
   Acetabularia J.V.Lamouroux
    Acetabularia caliculus J.V.Lamouroux [14,38,41,42,67,87]
    Acetabularia major G. Martens [41,42,63]
   Parvocaulis S.Berger, U.Fettweiss, S.Gleissberg, L.B.Liddle, U.Richter, H.Sawitzky & G.C.Zuccarello
    Parvocaulis clavatus (Yamada) S. Berger, U. Fettweiss, S. Gleissberg, L.B. Liddle, U. Richter, H. Sawitzky & Zucca- rello [38,41,42]
    Parvocaulis exiguus (Solms-Laubach) S.Berger, Fettweiss, Gleissberg, Liddle, U.Richter, Sawitzky & Zuccarello [41,42,63]
    Parvocaulis parvulus (Solms-Laubach) S. Berger, U. Fett- weiss, S. Gleissberg, L.B. Liddle, U. Richter, H. Sawitzky & Zuccarello [38,41,42]
    Parvocaulis pusillus (M. Howe) S. Berger, U. Fettweiss, S. Gleissberg, L.B. Liddle, U. Richter, H. Sawitzky & Zucca- rello [38,41,42]
 Ulotrichales
  Gayraliaceae
   Gayralia K.L.Vinogradova
    Gayralia oxysperma (Kützing) K.L. Vinogradova ex Scagel, R.F., Gabrielson, P.W., Garbary, D.J., Golden, L., Hawkes, M.W., Lindstrom, S.C., Oliveira, J.C. & Widdowson, T.B. [41,42,63]
  Gomontiaceae
   Gomontia Bornet & Flahault
    Gomontia arrhiza Hariot [41,42,63]
  Monostromataceae
   Monostroma Thuret
    Monostroma nitidum WittrockPorphyra crispata Kjellman[14,38,41,42,87]
  Ulotrichaceae
   Ulothrix Kützing
    Ulothrix flacca (Dillwyn) Thuret [42,87]
    Ulothrix subflaccida Wille [41,42,63]
 Ulvales
  Ulvaceae
   Enteromorpha Link
    Enteromorpha stipitata var. catbaenis A.D. Zinova & Nguyen H. Dinh [87]
   Ulva Linnaeus
    Ulva aragoënsis (Bliding) Maggs [61]
    Ulva chaetomorphoides (Børgesen) Hayden, Blomster, Maggs, P.C. Silva, M.J. Stanhope et J.R. Waaland [38,41,42,64,72]
    Ulva chaugulii M.G.Kavale & M.A.Kazi [61]
    Ulva clathrata (Roth) C. Agardh [38,41,42,88]
    Ulva compressa Linnaeus [38,41,42,64,72]
    Ulva conglobata Kjellman [38,41,42,64,72]
    Ulva fenestrata Postels & Ruprecht [38,41,42,64,72]
    Ulva flexuosa subsp. pilifera (Kützing) M.J. Wynne [41,42,63]
    Ulva flexuosa Wulfen [38,41,42,64,72]
    Ulva intestinalis Linnaeus [38,41,42,64,72]
    Ulva kraftiorum Huisman [61]
    Ulva kylinii (Bliding) Hayden, Blomster, Maggs, P.C. Silva, M.J. Stanhope et J.R. Waaland [38,41,42,64,72]
    Ulva lactuca Linnaeus [38,41,42,64,72]
    Ulva limnetica K.Ichihara & S.Shimada [61]
    Ulva meridionalis R.Horimoto & S.Shimada [61]
    Ulva ohnoi M.Hiraoka & S.Shimada [61]
    Ulva papenfussii Pham H.H. [38,41,42,64,72]
    Ulva prolifera O.F. Müller [38,41,42,64,72]
    Ulva ralfsii (Harvey) Le Jolis [38,41,42,64,72]
    Ulva reticulata Forsskål [27,38,41,42,64,87,88]
    Ulva spinulosa Okamura & Segawa [42,87]
    Ulva tepida Y.Masakiyo & S.Shimada [61]
    Ulva torta (Mertens) Trevisan [41,42,63]
    Ulva vietnamensis L.-A.T.Tran, Leliaert & De Clerck [61]
  Ulvellaceae
   Ulvella P.L.Crouan & H.M.Crouan
    Ulvella lens P.L. Crouan et H.M. Crouan [14,38,41,42,87]
    Ulvella leptochaete (Huber) R.Nielsen, C.J.O’Kelly & B.Wysor [41,42,63]
    Ulvella scutata (Reinke) R.Nielsen, C.J.O’Kelly & B.Wysor [41,42,63]
    Ulvella viridis (Reinke) R. Nielsen, C.J. O’Kelly & B. Wysor [41,42,63]
 Vaucheriales
  Vaucheriaceae
   Vaucheria A.P.de Candolle
    Vaucheria piloboloides Thuret [41,42,63]
TRACHEOPHYTA
 Alismatales
  Cymodoceaceae
   Cymodocea K.D.König
    Cymodocea rotundata Ascherson & Schweinfurth [89]
   Halodule Endlicher
    Halodule pinifolia (Miki) Hartog [44]
    Halodule uninervis (Forsskål) Ascherson [44]
   Oceana Byng & Christenhusz
    Oceana serrulata (R.Brown) Byng & Christenhusz Cymodocea serrulata (R.Brown) Ascherson & Magnus[89]
   Syringodium Kützing
    Syringodium isoetifolium (Ascherson) Dandy [44]
   Thalassodendron Den Hartog
    Thalassodendron ciliatum (Forsskål) Hartog [89]
  Hydrocharitaceae
   Enhalus L.C. Richard
    Enhalus acoroides (Linnaeus f.) Royle [89]
   Halophila Thouars
    Halophila beccarii Ascherson [44]
    Halophila decipiens Ostenfeld [44]
    Halophila major (Zollinger) Miquel [44]
    Halophila minor (Zollinger) Hartog [90]
    Halophila ovalis (R.Brown) Hooker f. [44,90]
   Thalassia Banks ex König
    Thalassia hemprichii (Ehrenberg) Ascherson [89]
  Ruppiaceae
   Ruppia Linnaeus
    Ruppia maritima Linnaeus [91]
  Zosteraceae
   Zostera Linnaeus
    Zostera japonica Ascherson & Graebner [92]
Table
Table 3. Species diversity of marine floral groups in countries bordering the South China Sea (East Vietnam Sea). Data based on AlgaeBase [46]. * References for seagrasses (Alismatales).
Table 3. Species diversity of marine floral groups in countries bordering the South China Sea (East Vietnam Sea). Data based on AlgaeBase [46]. * References for seagrasses (Alismatales).
CountriesCyanobacteriaRhodophytaOchrophytaChlorophytaAlima-StalesRef. *
China11449530120522[113]
Indonesia1148316523213[114]
Malaysia285453916[115]
Philippines659718324418[116]
Singapore15114929710[117]
Thailand076407712[118]
Vietnam5143817120215[119]
Table
Table 4. Endemic marine algae species from Vietnam.
Table 4. Endemic marine algae species from Vietnam.
No.PhylumGenusName Species
1RhodophytaAcrochaetium NägeliAcrochaetium gracile var. vietnamense Pham-Hoàng Hộ
2Acrochaetium phuquocense Pham-Hoàng Hộ
3Acrochaetium pseudoerectum Pham-Hoàng Hộ
4Ahnfeltiopsis P.C.Silva & DeCewAhnfeltiopsis quinhonensis (Pham-Hoàng Hộ) Masuda
5Bangia LyngbyeBangia tanakae Pham-Hoàng Hộ
6Caloglossa (Harvey) G.MartensCaloglossa saigonensis Tanaka & Pham-Hoàng Hộ
7Ceramium RothCeramium vietnamense Pham-Hoàng Hộ
8Ectocarpus LyngbyeEctocarpus siliculosus f. sporangioramosus A.D.Zinova & Nguyen Huu Dinh
9Ectocarpus vungtauensis Pham-Hoàng Hộ
10Erythrotrichia AreschougErythrotrichia parietalis var. majuscula T.Tanaka & Pham-Hoàng Hộ
11Gelidium J.V.LamourouxGelidium vietnamense Pham-Hoàng Hộ
12Gracilariopsis E.Y.DawsonGracilariopsis nganii Pham-Hoàng Hộ
13Gracilariopsis nhatrangensis Nhu Hau Le & S.-M.Lin
14Gracilariopsis phanthietensis Pham-Hoàng Hộ
15Herposiphonia NägeliHerposiphonia vietnamica Pham-Hoàng Hộ
16Meristotheca J.AgardhMeristotheca lysonensis X.-V.Nguyen, X.-T.Nguyen, Kittle & McDermid
17Porphyra C.AgardhPorphyra tanakae Pham-Hoàng Hộ
18Prionitis J.AgardhPrionitis vietnamensis Pham-Hoàng Hộ
19Pyropia J.AgardhPyropia vietnamensis (Tak.Tanaka & P.H.Hô) J.E.Sutherland & Monotilla
20Rodriguezella F.SchmitzRodriguezella hongngai Pham-Hoàng Hộ
21OchrophytaLobophora J.AgardhLobophora tsengii D.Tien & Z.Sun
22Petroderma KuckuckPetroderma vietnamensis Pham-Hoàng Hộ
23Sargassum C.AgardhSargassum bangmeianum Nguyen Huu Dinh & Huynh Quang Nang
24Sargassum baorenii Nguyen Huu Dinh & Huynh Quang Nang
25Sargassum buui Nguyen Huu Dinh & Huynh Quang Nang
26Sargassum carpophyllum var. honomense Nguyen Huu Dinh & Huynh Quang Nang
27Sargassum carpophyllum var. nhatrangense (Pham-Hoàng Hộ) Ajisaka
28Sargassum congkinhii Pham-Hoàng Hộ
29Sargassum cornutifructum Nguyen Huu Dinh & Huynh Quang Nang
30Sargassum cotoense Nguyen Huu Dai
31Sargassum hieui Nguyen Huu Dinh & Huynh Quang Nang
32Sargassum mcclurei f. duplicatum A.D.Zinova & Nguyen Huu Dinh
33Sargassum namoense Nguyen Huu Dai
34Sargassum phamhoangii Nguyen Huu Dai
35Sargassum quinhonense Nguyen Huu Dai
36Sargassum serratum Nguyen Huu Dai
37Sargassum tsengii Nguyen Huu Dinh & Huynh Quang Nang
38Sargassum vietnamense A.D.Zinova & Dinh
39Spatoglossum KützingSpatoglossum vietnamense Pham-Hoàng Hộ
40Turbinaria J.V.LamourouxTurbinaria ornata var. prolifera Pham-Hoàng Hộ
41ChlorophytaCaulerpa J.V.LamourouxCaulerpa mexicana f. vietnamica Pham-Hoàng Hộ
42Caulerpa minuta L.N.Hau
43Caulerpa racemosa f. vietnamensis A.D. Zinova & Nguyen H. Dinh
44Cladophoropsis BørgesenCladophoropsis phamhoanghoii Molinari & Guiry
45Ulva LinnaeusUlva vietnamensis L.-A.T.Tran, Leliaert & De Clecrck
Table
Table 5. Checklist MPAs in Vietnam.
Table 5. Checklist MPAs in Vietnam.
No.MPA NameProvinceRegionsArea (ha)Typical Species
1Co To-Dao TranQuang NinhSoutheast18,400Coral, seaweed, seagrass
2Bai Tu LongQuang NinhSoutheast96,500Coral, seagrass
3Cat BaHai PhongRed River Delta 10,900Coral, seaweed, seagrass
4Bach Long ViHai PhongRed River Delta 27,000Coral, abalone
5Con CoQuang TriNorth Central Coast 2140Red coral, seagrass
6Cu Lao ChamQuang NamSouth Central Coast6716Coral, seaweed, seagrass
7Ly SonQuang NgaiSouth Central Coast7925Coral, seagrass
8Nha Trang BayKhanh HoaSouth Central Coast12,000Coral, seagrass
9Nui ChuaNinh ThuanSouth Central Coast7352Coral, sea turtle
10Hon CauBinh ThuanSouth Central Coast12,390Coral, seagrass, rock crab, shrimp
11Con DaoBa Ria–Vung TauSouth Central Coast23,000Dugong, sea turtle, coral
12Phu QuocKien GiangMekong River Delta18,700Coral, seagrass
Total area (ha)243,023-
Table
Table 6. Nature reserves and national parks in Vietnam.
Table 6. Nature reserves and national parks in Vietnam.
Nature ReserveProvinceRegionsArea (ha)
Dong Rui Wetland Conservation AreaQuang NinhSoutheast15,750
Cat Ba Biosphere ReserveHai PhongRed River Delta 26,588
Thai Thuy Wetland Conservation AreaThai BinhRed River Delta 6560
Red River Delta Biosphere ReserveThai Binh-Nam Dinh-Ninh BinhRed River Delta 105,558
Tam Giang–Cau Hai Wetland Nature ReserveThua Thien HueNorth Central Coast 2071
Son Tra Nature ReserveDa NangNorth Central Coast 4400
Nui Chua National ParkNinh ThuanSouth Central Coast29,865
Binh Chau–Phuoc Buu Nature ReserveBa Ria—Vung TauSoutheast Coast10,537
Can Gio Biosphere ReserveHo Chi MinhSoutheast Coast75,740
Mui Ca Mau National ParkCa MauMekong River Delta41,862
Table
Table 7. Biosecurity components adopted in the national seaweed policies and regulations in the main Gracilaria and Kappaphycus alvarezii production.
Table 7. Biosecurity components adopted in the national seaweed policies and regulations in the main Gracilaria and Kappaphycus alvarezii production.
Biosecurity ComponentPolicy/RegulationDescription
Established aquatic animal/plant regulationRegulation No. 434/2021National plan for prevention and control of some dangerous diseases on aquaculture
Disease surveillance systemPlant Protection and Quarantine Law No. 41/2013Law on activities of preventing and combating organisms harmful to plants, phytosanitary, management of pesticides
National regulation of live seaweed movementFisheries Law No. 18/2017Law on fisheries activities, state management of fisheries
National statutory contingency plan Regulation No. 1664/2021Law on fisheries activities, state management of fisheries
National standards of seaweed cultivation, production process, food safety
-
TCN 108:1998;
-
TCN 155:2000;
-
TCVN 10371:2014
-
Ministry standard for Gracilaria asiatica planting material;
-
Ministry standard for technical process of cultivation of Gracilaria asiatica to produce 2 tons dry seaweed/ha/year;
-
Technical requirements for Kappaphycus alvarezii.
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Nguyen, M.-L.; Kim, M.-S.; Nguyen, N.-T.N.; Nguyen, X.-T.; Cao, V.-L.; Nguyen, X.-V.; Vieira, C. Marine Floral Biodiversity, Threats, and Conservation in Vietnam: An Updated Review. Plants 2023, 12, 1862. https://doi.org/10.3390/plants12091862

AMA Style

Nguyen M-L, Kim M-S, Nguyen N-TN, Nguyen X-T, Cao V-L, Nguyen X-V, Vieira C. Marine Floral Biodiversity, Threats, and Conservation in Vietnam: An Updated Review. Plants. 2023; 12(9):1862. https://doi.org/10.3390/plants12091862

Chicago/Turabian Style

Nguyen, Manh-Linh, Myung-Sook Kim, Nhu-Thuy Nhat Nguyen, Xuan-Thuy Nguyen, Van-Luong Cao, Xuan-Vy Nguyen, and Christophe Vieira. 2023. "Marine Floral Biodiversity, Threats, and Conservation in Vietnam: An Updated Review" Plants 12, no. 9: 1862. https://doi.org/10.3390/plants12091862

APA Style

Nguyen, M.-L., Kim, M.-S., Nguyen, N.-T. N., Nguyen, X.-T., Cao, V.-L., Nguyen, X.-V., & Vieira, C. (2023). Marine Floral Biodiversity, Threats, and Conservation in Vietnam: An Updated Review. Plants, 12(9), 1862. https://doi.org/10.3390/plants12091862

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