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Batteries
Volume 11
Issue 2
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Batteries, Volume 11, Issue 2 (February 2025) – 44 articles

Cover Story (view full-size image): Knowledge of Li diffusivities in electrode materials of Li-ion batteries is essential for the fundamental understanding of charging/discharging times, maximum capacities, stress formation and possible side reactions. The present work investigates the difference in diffusion between Li-deficient LixNi1/3Mn1/3Co1/3O2 and LixCoO2 cathode materials prepared by solid-state reaction and electrochemical delithiation. Electrochemical delithiation produces a vacancy-rich state suitable for fast Li diffusion. This is not the case for samples prepared by solid-state reaction. Consequently, the design and use of a cathode initially made from a Li-deficient material does not improve the kinetics of battery performance. View this paper
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41 pages, 10418 KiB  
Review
Advancements in Vibration Testing: Effects on Thermal Performance and Degradation of Modern Batteries
by Khursheed Sabeel, Maher Al-Greer and Imran Bashir
Batteries 2025, 11(2), 82; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11020082 - 19 Feb 2025
Viewed by 2597
Abstract
Lithium-ion cells are increasingly being used as central power storage systems for modern applications, i.e., e-bikes, electric vehicles (EVs), satellites, and spacecraft, and they face significant and constant vibrations. This review examines how these vibrations affect the batteries’ mechanical, thermal, and electrical properties. [...] Read more.
Lithium-ion cells are increasingly being used as central power storage systems for modern applications, i.e., e-bikes, electric vehicles (EVs), satellites, and spacecraft, and they face significant and constant vibrations. This review examines how these vibrations affect the batteries’ mechanical, thermal, and electrical properties. Vibrations can cause structural issues, such as the separation of electrodes and the deformation of separators. These problems raise internal resistance and lead to localized heat generation. As a result, thermal management becomes more complicated, battery aging accelerates, and safety risks arise, including short circuits and thermal runaways. To tackle these challenges, we need more realistic testing protocols that consider the combined effects of vibrations, temperature, and mechanical stress. Improving thermal management systems (TMSs) using advanced cooling techniques and materials, e.g., phase change solutions, can help to alleviate these problems. It is also essential to design batteries with vibration-resistant materials and enhanced structural integrity to boost their durability. Moreover, vibrations play a significant role in various degradation mechanisms, including dendrite formation, self-discharge, and lithium plating, all of which can reduce battery capacity and lifespan. Our current research builds on these insights using a multiscale physics-based modeling approach to investigate how vibrations interact with thermal behavior and contribute to battery degradation. By combining computational models with experimental data, we aim to develop strategies and tools to enhance lithium-ion batteries’ safety, reliability, and longevity in challenging environments. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Lithium-Ion Battery Safety and Fire)
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13 pages, 4056 KiB  
Article
Engineering Hierarchical Porous Electrodes Integrated with Conformal Ultrathin Nanosheets for Achieving Rapid Kinetics in High-Power Microbatteries
by Xin Chen, Minjian Gong, Jiantao Li, Wei Yang and Xu Xu
Batteries 2025, 11(2), 81; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11020081 - 18 Feb 2025
Viewed by 459
Abstract
With the rapid development of the Internet of Things (IoT), there is an increasing demand for batteries with high energy and power densities. Three-dimensional microstructures present a promising approach for achieving high areal mass loading and an expanded electrochemical reaction surface. However, their [...] Read more.
With the rapid development of the Internet of Things (IoT), there is an increasing demand for batteries with high energy and power densities. Three-dimensional microstructures present a promising approach for achieving high areal mass loading and an expanded electrochemical reaction surface. However, their high cost and complexity have hindered their widespread adoption. In this study, hierarchical porous electrodes integrated with conformal ultrathin nanosheets were fabricated to enhance reaction kinetics. The hierarchical porous skeleton provides a continuous pathway for electron transport and electrolyte diffusion, while the amorphous vanadium oxide (α-VOx) nanosheets offer short ion diffusion channels and a large electrochemical surface area. Additionally, the internal space of the hierarchical structure accommodates substantial growth of the α-VOx nanosheets, thereby supporting high mass loading and preserving areal capacity. The resulting hierarchical electrode structure demonstrates a high energy density of 0.49 mAh cm−2 at 1 mA cm−2 and an ultrahigh power density of 410 mW cm−2 at 250 mA cm−2. The assembled microbattery, using lithium metal as the anode, is encapsulated with a novel packaging process. This microbattery can power an electronic clock for up to 18 h on a single charge, retaining 75% of its initial capacity after 180 cycles. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Breakthrough of Traditional Electrochemical Energy Storage Systems)
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20 pages, 2660 KiB  
Article
A Software/Hardware Framework for Efficient and Safe Emergency Response in Post-Crash Scenarios of Battery Electric Vehicles
by Bo Zhang, Tanvir R. Tanim and David Black
Batteries 2025, 11(2), 80; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11020080 - 16 Feb 2025
Viewed by 679
Abstract
The adoption rate of battery electric vehicles (EVs) is rapidly increasing. Electric vehicles differ significantly from conventional internal combustion engine vehicles and vary widely across different manufacturers. Emergency responders (ERs) and recovery personnel may have less experience with EVs and lack timely access [...] Read more.
The adoption rate of battery electric vehicles (EVs) is rapidly increasing. Electric vehicles differ significantly from conventional internal combustion engine vehicles and vary widely across different manufacturers. Emergency responders (ERs) and recovery personnel may have less experience with EVs and lack timely access to critical information such as the extent of the stranded energy present, high-voltage safety hazards, and post-crash handling procedures in a user-friendly manner. This paper presents a software/hardware interactive tool named Electric Vehicle Information for Incident Response Solutions (EVIRS) to aid in the quick access to emergency response and recovery information. The current prototype of EVIRS identifies EVs using the VIN or Make, Model, and Year, and offers several useful features for ERs and recovery personnel. These features include integration and easy access to emergency response procedures tailored to an identified EV, vehicle structural schematics, the quick identification of battery pack specifications, and more. For EVs that are not severely damaged, EVIRS can perform calculations to estimate stranded energy in the EV’s battery and discharge time for various power loads using either EV dashboard information or operational data accessed through the CAN interface. Knowledge of this information may be helpful in the post-crash handling, management, and storage of an EV. The functionality and accuracy of EVIRS were demonstrated through laboratory tests using a 2021 Ford Mach-E and associated data acquisition system. The results indicated that when the remaining driving range was used as an input, EVIRS was able to estimate the pack voltage with an error of less than 3 V. Conversely, when pack voltage was used as an input, the estimated state of charge (SOC) error was less than 5% within the range of 30–90% SOC. Additionally, other features, such as retrieving emergency response guides for identified EVs and accessing lessons learned from archived incidents, have been successfully demonstrated through EVIRS for quick access. EVIRS can be a valuable tool for emergency responders and recovery personnel, both in action and during offline training, by providing crucial information related to assessing EV/battery safety risks, appropriate handling, de-energizing, transport, and storage in an integrated and user-friendly manner. Full article
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24 pages, 10805 KiB  
Article
Vehicle–Grid Interaction Pricing Optimization Considering Travel Probability and Battery Degradation to Minimize Community Peak–Valley Load
by Kun Wang, Yalun Li, Chaojie Xu, Peng Guo, Zhenlin Wu and Jiuyu Du
Batteries 2025, 11(2), 79; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11020079 - 16 Feb 2025
Viewed by 808
Abstract
Vehicle-to-Grid (V2G) technology has been widely applied in recent years. Under the time-of-use pricing, users independently decide the charging and discharging behavior to maximize economic benefits, charging during low-price periods, discharging during high-electricity periods, and avoiding battery degradation. However, such behavior under inappropriate [...] Read more.
Vehicle-to-Grid (V2G) technology has been widely applied in recent years. Under the time-of-use pricing, users independently decide the charging and discharging behavior to maximize economic benefits, charging during low-price periods, discharging during high-electricity periods, and avoiding battery degradation. However, such behavior under inappropriate electricity prices can deviate from the grid’s goal of minimizing peak–valley load difference. Based on the basic electricity data of a community in Beijing and electricity vehicle (EV) random travel behavior obtained through Monte Carlo simulation, this study establishes a user optimal decision model that is influenced by battery degradation and electricity costs considering depth of discharge, charging rate, and charging energy loss. A mixed-integer linear programming algorithm with the objective of minimizing the cost of EV users is constructed to offer the participation power of V2G. By analyzing grid load fluctuations under different electricity pricing strategies, the study derives the formulation and adjustment rules for optimal electricity pricing that achieve ideal load stabilization. Under 30% V2G participation, the relative fluctuation of grid load is reduced from 31.81% to 5.19%. This study addresses the challenge of obtaining optimal electricity prices to guide users to participate in V2G to minimize the peak–valley load fluctuation. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Battery Performance, Ageing, Reliability and Safety)
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43 pages, 5654 KiB  
Review
Advancements and Applications of Redox Flow Batteries in Australia
by Touma B. Issa, Jonovan Van Yken, Pritam Singh and Aleksandar N. Nikoloski
Batteries 2025, 11(2), 78; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11020078 - 16 Feb 2025
Viewed by 779
Abstract
Redox flow batteries (RFBs) are known for their exceptional attributes, including remarkable energy efficiency of up to 80%, an extended lifespan, safe operation, low environmental contamination concerns, sustainable recyclability, and easy scalability. One of their standout characteristics is the separation of electrolytes into [...] Read more.
Redox flow batteries (RFBs) are known for their exceptional attributes, including remarkable energy efficiency of up to 80%, an extended lifespan, safe operation, low environmental contamination concerns, sustainable recyclability, and easy scalability. One of their standout characteristics is the separation of electrolytes into two distinct tanks, isolating them from the electrochemical stack. This unique design allows for the separate design of energy capacity and power, offering a significantly higher level of adaptability and modularity compared to traditional technologies like lithium batteries. RFBs are also an improved technology for storing renewable energy in small or remote communities, benefiting from larger storage capacity, lower maintenance requirements, longer life, and more flexibility in scaling the battery system. However, flow batteries also have disadvantages compared to other energy storage technologies, including a lower energy density and the potential use of expensive or scarce materials. Despite these limitations, the potential benefits of flow batteries in terms of scalability, long cycle life, and cost effectiveness make them a key strategic technology for progressing to net zero. Specifically, in Australia, RFBs are good candidates for storing the increasingly large amount of energy generated from green sources such as photovoltaic panels and wind turbines. Additionally, the geographical distribution of the population around Australia makes large central energy storage economically and logistically difficult, but RFBs can offer a more locally tailored approach to overcome this. This review examines the status of RFBs and the viability of this technology for use in Australia. Full article
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15 pages, 4756 KiB  
Article
Inductor-Based Active Balancing Topology with Wide Voltage Range Capability
by Hourong Song, Branislav Hredzak and John Fletcher
Batteries 2025, 11(2), 77; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11020077 - 15 Feb 2025
Viewed by 707
Abstract
With the increasing number of batteries integrated into the grid, the electrification of transportation, and the importance of reusing secondary batteries to preserve natural resources, active balancing techniques are becoming critical for optimizing battery performance, ensuring safety, and extending their lifespan. There is [...] Read more.
With the increasing number of batteries integrated into the grid, the electrification of transportation, and the importance of reusing secondary batteries to preserve natural resources, active balancing techniques are becoming critical for optimizing battery performance, ensuring safety, and extending their lifespan. There is a demand for battery management solutions that can efficiently manage the balancing of battery cells across a wide range of voltage levels. This paper proposes a new inductor-based active balancing topology that achieves balancing by transferring energy from battery cells to the battery pack. One of its main advantages over existing designs is that it can operate over a wide battery cell voltage range. Moreover, multicell balancing with a balancing current independent of the imbalance level can be achieved by adjusting the width and interval of pulses. The proposed topology can be implemented using traditional low-side gate driving integrated circuits, avoiding the need for expensive isolated power modules and high-side gate drivers. Sample balancer designs for low-voltage battery cells as well as higher-voltage cells are provided. The presented experimental results verify the operation of the proposed balancer on a lithium-ion battery pack. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Towards a Smarter Battery Management System: 2nd Edition)
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23 pages, 2356 KiB  
Article
Forecasting Battery Cell Production in Europe: A Risk Assessment Model
by Tim Wicke, Lukas Weymann, Christoph Neef and Jens Tübke
Batteries 2025, 11(2), 76; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11020076 - 14 Feb 2025
Viewed by 902
Abstract
The increase in battery demand, particularly from the mobility sector, has resulted in a significant increase in the required production capacities. Europe is facing a large-scale expansion of production capacities. Currently, the battery cell demand in the region accounts for approximately 25% of [...] Read more.
The increase in battery demand, particularly from the mobility sector, has resulted in a significant increase in the required production capacities. Europe is facing a large-scale expansion of production capacities. Currently, the battery cell demand in the region accounts for approximately 25% of global demand, while only 10% of global production capacities are located there. This has motivated the announcement of a large number of production projects of over 2 TWh by 2030, which would mean overcapacity compared to projected European cell demand. In recent years, however, many of the announced Gigafactories have been delayed or cancelled. This paper aims to develop a risk assessment model for forecasting realistic future capacities for battery cell production in Europe. The proposed model combines an evaluation of industry announcements at the project level with a Monte Carlo simulation to translate the announced production projects into a European production capacity forecast. Therefore, the likelihood of implementation for individual projects is analysed within 11 topics (company, country and maturity related) and scenarios for future European production capacities are elaborated. Model validation indicates that from 54% to 75% of the announced capacities in Europe are likely to be realised (approx. 1.2 GWh–1.7 GWh by 2030). The majority of battery production projects announced in Europe are still in the planning phase (66%) with Germany, France, Scandinavia and Eastern Europe emerging as key regions. The modelling of production capacities predicts that dependency on cell imports to Europe will be reduced compared to today. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Battery Processing, Manufacturing and Recycling)
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18 pages, 2164 KiB  
Article
Comprehensive Investigation of the Durability of Lithium-Ion Batteries Under Frequency Regulation Conditions
by Yuxin Tian, Liye Wang, Chenglin Liao and Guifu Yan
Batteries 2025, 11(2), 75; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11020075 - 14 Feb 2025
Viewed by 469
Abstract
Due to the large-scale use of renewable energy generation and its lack of inertia, the frequency of the grid is extremely unstable. At the same time, with the vigorous development of new energy vehicles, large-scale power batteries have huge potential for renewable energy [...] Read more.
Due to the large-scale use of renewable energy generation and its lack of inertia, the frequency of the grid is extremely unstable. At the same time, with the vigorous development of new energy vehicles, large-scale power batteries have huge potential for renewable energy consumption. In this context, the Vehicle-to-Grid (V2G) method is proposed. Electric vehicles are used as energy storage systems to provide frequency regulation services as flexible power grid resources. However, when electric vehicles are invested in large-scale frequency regulation, their own power battery durability will also be affected. Based on this problem, the pseudo-two-dimensions (P2D) model of the battery was established in this paper, and the effects of temperature, state of charge (SOC), reported power, and frequency regulation conditions on battery capacity attenuation and negative potential distribution were explored through experiments and simulations. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Towards a Smarter Battery Management System: 2nd Edition)
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14 pages, 4389 KiB  
Article
Bimetal/Li2Se Nanocomposite as Cathode Prelithiation Additive for Sustainable High-Energy Lithium-Ion Batteries
by Ting Liu, Xuemei Hu, Yadong Zhang, Ting He, Yunxiang Guo and Junqiang Qiao
Batteries 2025, 11(2), 74; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11020074 - 11 Feb 2025
Viewed by 638
Abstract
Cathodes undergo unavoidable lithium loss due to the formation of a solid electrolyte interface (SEI), which seriously affects the energy density of lithium iron phosphate (LFP) batteries. To compensate for the initial capacity loss, we introduced an NiCo-Li2Se nanocomposite to an [...] Read more.
Cathodes undergo unavoidable lithium loss due to the formation of a solid electrolyte interface (SEI), which seriously affects the energy density of lithium iron phosphate (LFP) batteries. To compensate for the initial capacity loss, we introduced an NiCo-Li2Se nanocomposite to an LFP battery system to act as a competitive cathode prelithiation additive. Benefiting from its zero gas-emissions, ambient stability, high irreversible capacity, low delithiation potential, and good compatibility with carbonate-based electrolytes, the NiCo-Li2Se additive based on the chemical conversion reaction effectively offset the initial lithium loss. As a result, with 10 wt% addition, the initial charge capacity of the Li||LFP half-cell was improved by 34 mA h g−1. The Gra||LFP-Li2Se full-cell released an initial discharge specific capacity of 159.7 mA h g−1, which increased by 18% compared with the Gra||LFP full-cell, resulting in improved cycling stability. In addition, COMSOL Multiphysics simulation was applied to verify the function of the NiCo-Li2Se additive, and pouch cells were assembled to explore its potential in large-scale industrial application. This work provides a meaningful research direction for the design of a prelithiation additive for LFP cells. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Battery Materials and Interfaces: Anode, Cathode, Separators and Electrolytes or Others)
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15 pages, 854 KiB  
Article
Lab-Scale X-Ray Exposure Has No Measurable Impact on Lithium-Ion Battery Performance and Lifetime
by Jinhong Min, Amariah Condon and Peter M. Attia
Batteries 2025, 11(2), 73; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11020073 - 11 Feb 2025
Viewed by 645
Abstract
X-ray characterization is broadly used in battery research, development, manufacturing, and quality control. However, the impact of lab-scale X-ray exposure on battery performance and lifetime is not well understood. In this work, we evaluate the impact of lab-scale X-rays on battery performance and [...] Read more.
X-ray characterization is broadly used in battery research, development, manufacturing, and quality control. However, the impact of lab-scale X-ray exposure on battery performance and lifetime is not well understood. In this work, we evaluate the impact of lab-scale X-rays on battery performance and lifetime. We tested groups of cylindrical 18,650 cells using 2 min and 60 min X-ray imaging conditions; the performance and lifetime of these cells were identical to a control group without X-ray exposure. These results suggest that lab-scale X-ray characterization is safe for lithium-ion batteries. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Batteries Aging Mechanisms and Diagnosis)
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13 pages, 2235 KiB  
Article
Comparative Analysis of Synthesis Routes and Aluminum Doping Effects on Nickel-Manganese-Cobalt Type Cathode Material
by Yu-Sheng Chen, Elena Tchernychova, Samo Hočevar, Robert Dominko and Władysław Wieczorek
Batteries 2025, 11(2), 72; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11020072 - 10 Feb 2025
Viewed by 806
Abstract
This study presents a comprehensive analysis of the synthesis techniques and the effects of aluminum doping on nickel-manganese-cobalt (NMC) 811 cathode materials. Our research focuses on the comparison of two different synthesis methods. Hydroxide co-precipitation is followed by solid-state calcination for polycrystalline (PC) [...] Read more.
This study presents a comprehensive analysis of the synthesis techniques and the effects of aluminum doping on nickel-manganese-cobalt (NMC) 811 cathode materials. Our research focuses on the comparison of two different synthesis methods. Hydroxide co-precipitation is followed by solid-state calcination for polycrystalline (PC) cathodes and molten salt calcination for single-crystalline (SC) cathodes. In addition, the study systematically integrates aluminum dopants at different stages of these processes. This study aims to examine how various doping methods affect the structural characteristics, morphological features, and electrochemical performance of NMC cathodes.This investigation employs a thorough characterization approach, utilizing techniques such as X-ray diffraction (XRD), various microscopy methods, and galvanostatic cycling tests, our results illustrate the complexity of the synthesis parameters that influence the capacity retention and performance of the samples produced. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Battery Materials and Interfaces: Anode, Cathode, Separators and Electrolytes or Others)
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75 pages, 13093 KiB  
Review
Review on Advancements in Carbon Nanotubes: Synthesis, Purification, and Multifaceted Applications
by Anil Kumar Madikere Raghunatha Reddy, Ali Darwiche, Mogalahalli Venkatashamy Reddy and Karim Zaghib
Batteries 2025, 11(2), 71; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11020071 - 8 Feb 2025
Viewed by 2049
Abstract
Since their discovery over two decades ago, carbon nanotubes (CNTs) have captivated researchers due to their exceptional electrical, optical, mechanical, and thermal properties, making them versatile candidates for various advanced applications. CNTs have transformed numerous scientific domains, including nanotechnology, electronics, materials science, and [...] Read more.
Since their discovery over two decades ago, carbon nanotubes (CNTs) have captivated researchers due to their exceptional electrical, optical, mechanical, and thermal properties, making them versatile candidates for various advanced applications. CNTs have transformed numerous scientific domains, including nanotechnology, electronics, materials science, and biomedical engineering. Their applications range from nanoelectronics, robust nanocomposites, and energy storage devices to innovative materials, sensors, conducting polymers, field emission sources, and Li-ion batteries. Furthermore, CNTs have found critical roles in biosensing, water purification, bone scaffolding, and targeted gene and drug delivery. The chemical reactivity and functional versatility of CNTs are profoundly influenced by their structural and physicochemical properties, such as surface area, surface charge, size distribution, surface chemistry, and purity. This review comprehensively explores the current state of CNT research, focusing on widely used synthesis, purification, and characterization techniques alongside emerging applications. By highlighting recent advancements and addressing unresolved challenges, it aims to present a novel perspective on the transformative potential of CNTs, fostering innovation across diverse scientific and technological fields. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Battery Materials and Interfaces: Anode, Cathode, Separators and Electrolytes or Others)
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34 pages, 6174 KiB  
Article
Optimization of Size and Operation of Stand-Alone Renewable-Based Systems with Diesel and Hybrid Pumped Hydro Storage–Battery Storage Considering Uncertainties
by Rodolfo Dufo-López and Juan M. Lujano-Rojas
Batteries 2025, 11(2), 70; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11020070 - 8 Feb 2025
Viewed by 527
Abstract
Currently, the electrical supply in stand-alone systems is usually composed of renewable sources with fossil-fuel generators and battery storage. This study shows a novel model for the metaheuristic–stochastic optimization (minimization of the net present cost, and NPC) of sizing and energy management for [...] Read more.
Currently, the electrical supply in stand-alone systems is usually composed of renewable sources with fossil-fuel generators and battery storage. This study shows a novel model for the metaheuristic–stochastic optimization (minimization of the net present cost, and NPC) of sizing and energy management for stand-alone photovoltaic (PV)–wind–diesel systems with hybrid pumped hydro storage (PHS)–battery storage systems. The model is implemented in C++ programming language. To optimize operations—thus reducing PHS losses and increasing battery lifetimes—optimal energy management can optimize the power limits of using the PHS or battery to supply or store energy. The probabilistic approach considers the variability of wind speed, irradiation, temperature, load, and diesel fuel price inflation. The variable efficiencies of the components and losses and advanced models for battery degradation are considered. This methodology was applied to Graciosa Island (Portugal), showing that, compared with the current system, the optimal system (with a much higher renewable power and a hybrid PHS–battery storage) can reduce the NPC by half, reduce life cycle emissions to 14%, expand renewable penetration to 96%, and reduce the reserve capacity shortage to zero. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Battery Modelling, Simulation, Management and Application)
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29 pages, 20118 KiB  
Review
Heteroatom Doping Strategy of Advanced Carbon for Alkali Metal-Ion Capacitors
by Ti Yin, Yaqin Guo, Xing Huang, Xinya Yang, Leixin Qin, Tianxiang Ning, Lei Tan, Lingjun Li and Kangyu Zou
Batteries 2025, 11(2), 69; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11020069 - 8 Feb 2025
Viewed by 625
Abstract
Alkali metal-ion capacitors (AMICs) combine the advantages of the high specific energy of alkali metal-ion batteries (AMIBs) and the high power output of supercapacitors (SCs), which are considered highly promising and efficient energy storage devices. It is found that carbon has been the [...] Read more.
Alkali metal-ion capacitors (AMICs) combine the advantages of the high specific energy of alkali metal-ion batteries (AMIBs) and the high power output of supercapacitors (SCs), which are considered highly promising and efficient energy storage devices. It is found that carbon has been the most widely used electrode material of AMICs due to its advantages of low cost, a large specific surface area, and excellent electrical conductivity. However, the application of carbon is limited by its low specific capacity, finite kinetic performance, and few active sites. Doping heteroatoms in carbon materials is an effective strategy to adjust their microstructures and improve their electrochemical storage performance, which effectively helps to increase the pseudo-capacitance, enhance the wettability, and increase the ionic migration rate. Moreover, an appropriate heteroatom doping strategy can purposefully guide the design of advanced AMICs. Herein, a systematic review of advanced heteroatom (N, S, P, and B)-doped carbon, which has acted as a positrode and negatrode in AMICs (M = Li, Na, and K) in recent years, has been summarized. Moreover, emphasis is placed on the mechanism of single-element doping versus two-element doping for the enhancement in the performance of carbon positrodes and negatrodes, and an introduction to the use of doped carbon in dual-carbon alkali metal-ion capacitors (DC-AMICs) is discussed. Finally, an outlook is given to solve the problems arising when using doped carbon materials in practical applications and future development directions are presented. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Studies on High-Performance Metal-Ion Capacitors: Technologies, Systems and Applications)
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23 pages, 3771 KiB  
Review
The Sustainable and Green Management of Spent Lithium-Ion Batteries Through Hydroxy Acid Recycling and Direct Regeneration of Active Positive Electrode Material: A Review
by Ambar B. Shrestha and Ananda S. Amarasekara
Batteries 2025, 11(2), 68; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11020068 - 8 Feb 2025
Viewed by 1155
Abstract
The rapid increase in use of lithium-ion batteries in energy storage together with limited supply of critical metals used in batteries and environmental concerns have led to the urgent need for sustainable recycling technologies for these batteries. Li-ion battery chemistry, components, various designs, [...] Read more.
The rapid increase in use of lithium-ion batteries in energy storage together with limited supply of critical metals used in batteries and environmental concerns have led to the urgent need for sustainable recycling technologies for these batteries. Li-ion battery chemistry, components, various designs, and two main approaches for recycling: pyrolysis and hydrometallurgical techniques are discussed in this review focusing on the novel, sustainable green approach of hydroxy acid leaching followed by a direct regeneration technique. This two-step emerging technique is compared with other conventional recycling methods in this critical review emphasizing simplicity and commercial potential. Current literature reporting rapid developments on this scalable process with pretreatment phases of sorting, discharging, disassembly of batteries, separation of electrode coatings from current collectors, leaching black mass with hydroxy carboxylic acids, separation of graphite, adjustments of Li, Ni, Mn, and Co compositions, and regeneration via co-precipitation or sol–gel formation techniques followed by pyrolysis are discussed in the detailed review. The conclusion section of this direct regeneration focused critical review gives an insight into challenges in hydroxy acid recycling and direct regeneration technology and practical solutions that may help in development into a mainstream technology. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recycling and Reuse of End-of-Life Lithium-Ion Batteries: Challenges and Strategies–2nd Edition)
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18 pages, 5104 KiB  
Article
Experimental Investigation of Phase Change Material-Based Battery Pack Performance Under Elevated Ambient Temperature
by Mohammad J. Ganji, Martin Agelin-Chaab and Marc A. Rosen
Batteries 2025, 11(2), 67; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11020067 - 8 Feb 2025
Viewed by 1000
Abstract
This study experimentally assesses the thermal performance of a proposed phase change material (PCM)-based battery pack under elevated ambient temperatures. In addition, the novel approach of the research addresses scenarios where the ambient temperature reaches the PCM’s melting point while maintaining the initial [...] Read more.
This study experimentally assesses the thermal performance of a proposed phase change material (PCM)-based battery pack under elevated ambient temperatures. In addition, the novel approach of the research addresses scenarios where the ambient temperature reaches the PCM’s melting point while maintaining the initial temperature at the ideal operating point of 22 °C. The experiments employed nine 2500 mAh 18650 lithium-ion cells connected in series and subjected to constant-current discharges of 1C and 3C, with a conventional air-cooled system as the baseline and paraffin as the PCM. The results indicate that as the ambient temperature reached the PCM’s melting point, approximately 98% utilization of the PCM around the heating cell was achieved. Additionally, the PCM demonstrates noticeable advantages over the baseline by stabilizing the temperature profile and reducing the maximum temperature increase rate from over 18 °C in the baseline system to around 7 °C. Notably, under a high-load (3C) discharge rate, the PCM-based system successfully maintained battery temperatures below 42 °C, demonstrating its effectiveness under demanding operational scenarios. These findings establish a critical baseline for PCM-based BTMSs operating under elevated ambient temperatures and up to the melting point of the PCM, thereby informing future research and development of more efficient PCM-based thermal management solutions. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Thermal Management System for Lithium-Ion Batteries: 2nd Edition)
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19 pages, 3129 KiB  
Article
Rapid State of Health Estimation Strategy for Retired Batteries Based on Resting Voltage Curves
by Haihong Huang, Xin Liu, Wenjing Chang and Yuhang Wang
Batteries 2025, 11(2), 66; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11020066 - 8 Feb 2025
Viewed by 651
Abstract
Retired batteries are approaching the recycling peak, and their secondary utilization can prevent resource waste and environmental pollution from battery retirement. Evaluating the state of health (SOH) of retired batteries is crucial for secondary use. However, estimating the SOH of retired batteries is [...] Read more.
Retired batteries are approaching the recycling peak, and their secondary utilization can prevent resource waste and environmental pollution from battery retirement. Evaluating the state of health (SOH) of retired batteries is crucial for secondary use. However, estimating the SOH of retired batteries is time-consuming and energy-intensive. To address the problem, this paper proposes a rapid estimation strategy based on resting voltage curves. After discharging retired batteries to the same voltage, variations in the remaining state of charge (SOC) exist among batteries with different SOHs. These SOC differences lead to distinct trends in the resting voltage curves for varying SOH batteries. Our approach analyzes health features from these resting voltage discrepancies, ultimately achieving a fast estimation of retired batteries’ SOH. Additionally, during the data collection of datasets, some batteries may form outliers due to measurement errors. This paper analyzes the impact of outlier quantity on the accuracy of regression models for SOH estimation and proposes using the DBSCAN clustering algorithm to identify and mitigate the influence of outliers, eventually enhancing the precision of SOH estimation. Full article
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19 pages, 3485 KiB  
Article
Lifecycle Evaluation of Lithium-Ion Batteries Under Fast Charging and Discharging Conditions
by Olivia Bruj and Adrian Calborean
Batteries 2025, 11(2), 65; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11020065 - 7 Feb 2025
Viewed by 987
Abstract
By employing electrochemical impedance spectroscopy, we performed an impedance analysis of three commercial Li-ion Panasonic NCR18650B cells in order to investigate the direct effects of their internal impedance on the operating voltage, rate capability, and efficiency and their practical capacity. We aimed to [...] Read more.
By employing electrochemical impedance spectroscopy, we performed an impedance analysis of three commercial Li-ion Panasonic NCR18650B cells in order to investigate the direct effects of their internal impedance on the operating voltage, rate capability, and efficiency and their practical capacity. We aimed to assess their performance, safety, and longevity when distinct fast charge/discharge rates were applied. By maintaining a constant fast discharge rate of 2C, we monitored the degradation speed and the influence of the C-rates on the LIBs by applying distinct charge rates, namely, 1C, 1.5C, and 2C. In order to understand how their performance correlates with usage conditions, an SoH evolution analysis, together with a Q–Q0 total charge and energy consumption examination, was performed, taking into account that cycling monitoring is vital for ensuring their longevity and/or safety. Increasing the Icharge from 1C to 1.5C reduces the battery lifetime by ~50%, while in the case of fast charge/discharge rates of 2C, the lifetime performance decrease is almost ~70% due to a capacity loss that accelerates quickly when the charge rates increase. Moreover, for the latter cell, the last discharge rate can only go up to ~80% SoH, as the battery charge rate can no longer support faster degradation. In agreement with these results, the fluctuations in the Q–Q0 total charge become more pronounced, clearly affecting LIB efficiency. High charge rates add an additional high voltage that increases the batteries’ stress, leading to a shorter lifetime. Energy consumption data follow the same trend, in which efficiency decreases dramatically when losses appear because the internal resistance causes more and more heat to be produced during both fast charging and discharging. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Fast-Charging Lithium Batteries: Challenges, Progress and Future)
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25 pages, 6081 KiB  
Article
Hybrid Heat Pipe-PCM-Assisted Thermal Management for Lithium-Ion Batteries
by Nourouddin Sharifi, Hamidreza Shabgard, Christian Millard and Ugochukwu Etufugh
Batteries 2025, 11(2), 64; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11020064 - 7 Feb 2025
Viewed by 1166
Abstract
A hybrid cooling method for 18650 lithium-ion batteries has been investigated using both experimental and numerical approaches for electric vehicle applications. The experimental setup includes a heater section, a phase change material (PCM) reservoir, and a cooling section. The heater section simulates battery [...] Read more.
A hybrid cooling method for 18650 lithium-ion batteries has been investigated using both experimental and numerical approaches for electric vehicle applications. The experimental setup includes a heater section, a phase change material (PCM) reservoir, and a cooling section. The heater section simulates battery heat generation with two cylindrical aluminum housings, each sized to match an 18650 battery, two cartridge heaters, and an aluminum heat sink. An airflow channel is incorporated into the cooling section. Heat transfers sequentially from the heaters to aluminum housings, the heat sink, through three copper-water heat pipes (HPs), to/from the PCM, and finally to the cooled air in the airflow channel. This innovative design eliminates direct contact between the PCM and the batteries, unlike recent studies where the PCM has been in direct contact with the batteries. Decoupling the PCM reduces system design complexity while maintaining effective thermal management. Temperature measurements at various locations are analyzed under different heater powers, air velocities, and scenarios with and without PCM. Results show that the experimental design effectively maintains battery temperatures within acceptable limits. For a power input of 16 W, steady-state temperatures are reduced by approximately 14%, 10%, and 4% with PCM compared to without PCM for air velocities of 2 m/s, 3 m/s, and 4 m/s, respectively. A transient three-dimensional numerical model was developed in ANSYS-FLUENT to provide insights into the underlying physics. The phase change was simulated using the enthalpy-porosity approach, with computational results showing reasonable agreement with experimental data. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Thermal Management in Lithium-Ion Batteries: Latest Advances and Prospects)
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26 pages, 5528 KiB  
Review
Pseudocapacitive Storage in High-Performance Flexible Batteries and Supercapacitors
by Zhenxiao Lu and Xiaochuan Ren
Batteries 2025, 11(2), 63; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11020063 - 7 Feb 2025
Viewed by 1163
Abstract
Attention to electrochemical energy storage (EES) devices continues to grow as the demand increases for energy storage systems in the storage and transmission of renewable energy. The expanded market requirement for mobile electronics devices and flexible electronic devices also calls for efficient energy [...] Read more.
Attention to electrochemical energy storage (EES) devices continues to grow as the demand increases for energy storage systems in the storage and transmission of renewable energy. The expanded market requirement for mobile electronics devices and flexible electronic devices also calls for efficient energy suppliers. EES devices applying pseudocapacitive materials and generated pseudocapacitive storage are gaining increasing focus because they are capable of overcoming the capacity limitations of electrical double-layer capacitors (EDLCs) and offsetting the rate performance of batteries. The pseudocapacitive storage mechanism generally occurs on the surface or near the surface of the electrode materials, which could avoid the slow ion diffusion process. Developing materials with beneficial nanostructures and optimized phases supporting pseudocapacitive storage would efficiently improve the energy density and charging rate for EES devices, such as batteries and flexible supercapacitors. This review offers a detailed assessment of pseudocapacitance, including classification, working mechanisms, analysis methods, promotion routes and advanced applications. The future challenges facing the effective utilization of pseudocapacitive mechanisms in upcoming energy storage devices are also discussed. Full article
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16 pages, 4673 KiB  
Article
Small-Sample Battery Capacity Prediction Using a Multi-Feature Transfer Learning Framework
by Xiaoming Lu, Xianbin Yang, Xinhong Wang, Yu Shi, Jing Wang, Yiwen Yao, Xuefeng Gao, Haicheng Xie and Siyan Chen
Batteries 2025, 11(2), 62; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11020062 - 7 Feb 2025
Viewed by 859
Abstract
The accurate prediction of lithium-ion battery capacity is crucial for the safe and efficient operation of battery systems. Although data-driven approaches have demonstrated effectiveness in lifetime prediction, the acquisition of lifecycle data for long-life lithium batteries remains a significant challenge, limiting prediction accuracy. [...] Read more.
The accurate prediction of lithium-ion battery capacity is crucial for the safe and efficient operation of battery systems. Although data-driven approaches have demonstrated effectiveness in lifetime prediction, the acquisition of lifecycle data for long-life lithium batteries remains a significant challenge, limiting prediction accuracy. Additionally, the varying degradation trends under different operating conditions further hinder the generalizability of existing methods. To address these challenges, we propose a Multi-feature Transfer Learning Framework (MF-TLF) for predicting battery capacity in small-sample scenarios across diverse operating conditions (different temperatures and C-rates). First, we introduce a multi-feature analysis method to extract comprehensive features that characterize battery aging. Second, we develop a transfer learning-based data-driven framework, which leverages pre-trained models trained on large datasets to achieve a strong prediction performance in data-scarce scenarios. Finally, the proposed method is validated using both experimental and open-access datasets. When trained on a small sample dataset, the predicted RMSE error consistently stays within 0.05 Ah. The experimental results highlight the effectiveness of MF-TLF in achieving high prediction accuracy, even with limited data. Full article
(This article belongs to the Collection Feature Papers in Batteries)
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25 pages, 4775 KiB  
Review
Sodium-Ion Batteries: Applications and Properties
by Petr Bača, Jiří Libich, Sára Gazdošová and Jaroslav Polkorab
Batteries 2025, 11(2), 61; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11020061 - 6 Feb 2025
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2091
Abstract
With the growing interest in reducing CO2 emissions to combat climate change, humanity is turning to green or renewable sources of electricity. There are numerous issues associated with the development of these sources. One of the key aspects of renewable energy sources [...] Read more.
With the growing interest in reducing CO2 emissions to combat climate change, humanity is turning to green or renewable sources of electricity. There are numerous issues associated with the development of these sources. One of the key aspects of renewable energy sources is their problematic controllability, namely the control of energy production over time. Renewable sources are also associated with issues of recycling, utilization in different geographical zones, environmental impact within the required area, and so on. One of the most discussed issues today, however, is the question of efficient use of the energy produced from these sources. There are several different approaches to storing renewable energy, e.g., supercapacitors, flywheels, batteries, PCMs, pumped-storage hydroelectricity, and flow batteries. In the commercial sector, however, mainly due to acquisition costs, these options are narrowed down to only one concept: storing energy using an electrochemical storage device—batteries. Nowadays, lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) are the most widespread battery type. Despite many advantages of LIB technology, the availability of materials needed for the production of these batteries and the associated costs must also be considered. Thus, this battery type is not very ideal for large-scale stationary energy storage applications. Sodium-ion batteries (SIBs) are considered one of the most promising alternatives to LIBs in the field of stationary battery storage, as sodium (Na) is the most abundant alkali metal in the Earth’s crust, and the cell manufacturing process of SIBs is similar to that of LIBs. Unfortunately, considering the physical and electrochemical properties of Na, different electrode materials, electrolytes, and so on, are required. SIBs have come a long way since they were discovered. This review discusses the latest developments regarding the materials used in SIB technology. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Towards a Smarter Battery Management System: 2nd Edition)
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26 pages, 15857 KiB  
Review
Battery-Type Transition Metal Oxides in Hybrid Supercapacitors: Synthesis and Applications
by Bikash Raut, Md. Shahriar Ahmed, Hae-Yong Kim, Mohammad Mizanur Rahman Khan, Gazi A. K. M. Rafiqul Bari, Mobinul Islam and Kyung-Wan Nam
Batteries 2025, 11(2), 60; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11020060 - 5 Feb 2025
Viewed by 1098
Abstract
Hybrid supercapacitors (HSCs) have garnered growing interest for their ability to combine the high energy storage capability of batteries with the rapid charge–discharge characteristics of supercapacitors. This review examines the evolution of HSCs, emphasizing the synergistic mechanisms that integrate both Faradaic and non-Faradaic [...] Read more.
Hybrid supercapacitors (HSCs) have garnered growing interest for their ability to combine the high energy storage capability of batteries with the rapid charge–discharge characteristics of supercapacitors. This review examines the evolution of HSCs, emphasizing the synergistic mechanisms that integrate both Faradaic and non-Faradaic charge storage processes. Transition metal oxides (TMOs) are highlighted as promising battery-type electrodes owing to their notable energy storage potential and compatibility with various synthesis routes, including hydro/solvothermal methods, electrospinning, electrodeposition, and sol–gel processes. Particular attention is directed toward Ti-, Co-, and V-based TMOs, with a focus on tailoring their properties through morphology control, composite formation, and doping to enhance electrochemical performance. Overall, the discussion underscores the potential of HSCs to meet the growing demand for next-generation energy storage systems by bridging the gap between high energy and high power requirements. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Hybrid Supercapacitors: Materials, Devices, Models, Systems, and Applications)
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18 pages, 5311 KiB  
Article
Experimental Study on Thermal Management of 5S7P Battery Module with Immersion Cooling Under High Charging/Discharging C-Rates
by Le Duc Tai, Kunal Sandip Garud and Moo-Yeon Lee
Batteries 2025, 11(2), 59; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11020059 - 3 Feb 2025
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1364
Abstract
In this study, the efficiency of an immersion cooling system for controlling the temperature of 5S7P battery modules at high charge and discharge C-rates was experimentally evaluated. The study was conducted in three main stages including the evaluation of different coolant oils followed [...] Read more.
In this study, the efficiency of an immersion cooling system for controlling the temperature of 5S7P battery modules at high charge and discharge C-rates was experimentally evaluated. The study was conducted in three main stages including the evaluation of different coolant oils followed by the proposition of an optimal volume flow rate (VFR) and cooling performance evaluation under high charging/discharging C-rates. In the first stage, three coolant oils, including Therminol D-12, Pitherm 150B, and BOT 2100, were compared. The Therminol D-12 achieved superior cooling performance, with the highest heat transfer coefficient (HTC) of 2171.93 W/m2⋅K and the ability to maintain the maximum temperature (Tmax) and temperature difference (∆T) of the battery module within the safe range. In the next stage, VFR was varied between 0.4 LPM and 1.0 LPM for the selected best coolant oil of Therminol D-12. The 0.8 LPM VFR was determined to be optimal with the highest HTC of 2445.73 W/m2⋅K and an acceptable pressure drop of 12,650 Pa, ensuring a balance between cooling performance and energy consumption. Finally, the cooling performance was evaluated at high charging/discharging C-rates from 1.5C to 3.0C for the proposed best coolant oil and VFR. The immersion cooling system with Therminol D-12 and a VFR of 0.8 LPM is an effective combination to achieve the desired performance of the battery module under extreme C-rate working conditions. The immersion cooling system with the proposed effective combination maintains the Tmax and ∆T at 38.6 °C and 4.3 °C under a charging rate of 3.0C and to 43.0 °C and 5.5 °C under a discharging rate of 3.0C. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Battery Thermal Performance and Management: Advances and Challenges)
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16 pages, 1297 KiB  
Article
Online Cell-by-Cell Calibration Method to Enhance the Kalman-Filter-Based State-of-Charge Estimation
by Ngoc-Thao Pham, Phuong-Ha La, Sungoh Kwon and Sung-Jin Choi
Batteries 2025, 11(2), 58; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11020058 - 2 Feb 2025
Viewed by 776
Abstract
Kalman filter (KF) is an effective way to estimate the state-of-charge (SOC), but its performance is heavily dependent on the state-space model parameters. One of the factors that causes the model parameters to change is battery aging, which is individually and non-uniformly experienced [...] Read more.
Kalman filter (KF) is an effective way to estimate the state-of-charge (SOC), but its performance is heavily dependent on the state-space model parameters. One of the factors that causes the model parameters to change is battery aging, which is individually and non-uniformly experienced by the cells inside the battery pack. To mitigate this issue, this paper proposes an online calibration method considering the impact of cell aging and cell inconsistency. In this method, the state-of-health (SOH) levels of the individual cells are estimated using the deep learning method, and the historical parameter loop-up table is constructed to update the state-space model. The proposed calibration framework provides enhanced accuracy for cell-by-cell SOC estimation by lightweight computing devices. The SOC estimation errors of the calibrated EKF reduce to 1.81% compared to 12.1% of the uncalibrated algorithms. Full article
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24 pages, 20675 KiB  
Review
Cathodes for Zinc-Ion Micro-Batteries: Challenges, Strategies, and Perspectives
by Ling Deng, Qunfang Lin, Zeyang Li, Juexian Cao, Kailing Sun and Tongye Wei
Batteries 2025, 11(2), 57; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11020057 - 2 Feb 2025
Viewed by 828
Abstract
The sustainable development of high-performance micro-batteries, characterized by miniaturized size, portability, enhanced safety, and cost-effectiveness, is crucial for the advancement of wearable and smart electronics. Zinc-ion micro-batteries (ZIMBs) have attracted widespread attention for their high energy density, environmental friendliness, excellent safety, and low [...] Read more.
The sustainable development of high-performance micro-batteries, characterized by miniaturized size, portability, enhanced safety, and cost-effectiveness, is crucial for the advancement of wearable and smart electronics. Zinc-ion micro-batteries (ZIMBs) have attracted widespread attention for their high energy density, environmental friendliness, excellent safety, and low cost. The key to designing high-performance ZIMBs lies in improving their volumetric capacity and cycle stability. This review focuses on material design, electrode fabrication, and the structural configuration of micro-batteries, providing a comprehensive analysis of the challenges and strategies associated with cathodes in ZIMBs. Additionally, the application of ZIMBs, which provide energy for electronics such as wearable devices, tiny robots, and sensors, is introduced. Finally, future perspectives on cathodes for ZIMBs are discussed, offering key insights into their design and fabrication in order to facilitate the successful integration of ZIMBs into practical applications. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Emerging Materials and Technologies for Post-Lithium-Ion Batteries—2nd Edition)
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16 pages, 3545 KiB  
Article
Effects of Ultrasonic Pretreatment on the Discharge for Better Recycling of Spent Lithium-Ion Batteries
by Weichen Yang, Zheng Tong, Hezhan Wan, Shuangyin Jiang, Xiangning Bu and Lisha Dong
Batteries 2025, 11(2), 56; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11020056 - 2 Feb 2025
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 718
Abstract
Discharge treatment is a vital process in the pretreatment of spent lithium-ion batteries (LIBs). This paper focuses on the effects of ultrasonic pretreatment on the discharge of spent LIBs from the perspective of electrolyte concentration and ultrasonic power. By integrating characterizations such as [...] Read more.
Discharge treatment is a vital process in the pretreatment of spent lithium-ion batteries (LIBs). This paper focuses on the effects of ultrasonic pretreatment on the discharge of spent LIBs from the perspective of electrolyte concentration and ultrasonic power. By integrating characterizations such as pH measurement and X-ray fluorescence (XRF), the effect of ultrasonic pretreatment on the discharge of spent LIBs is evaluated. Experimental results show that sodium chloride (NaCl) solution and potassium chloride (KCl) solution have a more significant and better discharge efficiency (DE) under ultrasonic treatment, while organic electrolyte solutions which mainly contain formate and acetate generally show a less ideal DE. Under experimental conditions of using electrolyte discharge solutions with various electrolyte concentrations with the same ultrasonic power of 300 W, the DE generated from the experimental condition with KCl solution in 30 g/200 mL deionized water is the highest, 64.9%; under different ultrasonic powers in the same electrolyte solutions, the DE of 10 wt.% HCOONa solution is the highest at ultrasonic power of 500 W, at 4.7%. This work provides a reference for the efficient and cost-effective pretreatment of spent LIBs and the discharge mechanism in different electrolyte solutions with ultrasonic treatment is also explored to support the recycling of spent LIBs. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Recycling and Upcycling of Spent Lithium-Ion Batteries)
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22 pages, 7318 KiB  
Article
One-Dimensional Electro-Thermal Modelling of Battery Pack Cooling System for Heavy-Duty Truck Application
by Mateusz Maciocha, Thomas Short, Udayraj Thorat, Farhad Salek, Harvey Thompson and Meisam Babaie
Batteries 2025, 11(2), 55; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11020055 - 31 Jan 2025
Viewed by 1178
Abstract
The transport sector is responsible for nearly a quarter of global CO2 emissions annually, underscoring the urgent need for cleaner, more sustainable alternatives such as electric vehicles (EVs). However, the electrification of heavy goods vehicles (HGVs) has been slow due to the [...] Read more.
The transport sector is responsible for nearly a quarter of global CO2 emissions annually, underscoring the urgent need for cleaner, more sustainable alternatives such as electric vehicles (EVs). However, the electrification of heavy goods vehicles (HGVs) has been slow due to the substantial power and battery capacity required to match the large payloads and extended operational ranges. This study addresses the research gap in battery pack design for commercial HGVs by investigating the electrical and thermal behaviour of a novel battery pack configuration using an electro-thermal model based on the equivalent circuit model (ECM). Through computationally efficient 1D modelling, this study evaluates critical factors such as cycle ageing, state of charge (SoC), and their impact on the battery’s range, initially estimated at 285 km. The findings of this study suggest that optimal cooling system parameters, including a flow rate of 18 LPM (litres per minute) and actively controlling the inlet temperature within ±7.8 °C, significantly enhance thermal performance and stability. This comprehensive electro-thermal assessment and the advanced cooling strategy set this work apart from previous studies centred on smaller EV applications. The findings provide a foundation for future research into battery thermal management system (BTMS) design and optimised charging strategies, both of which are essential for accelerating the industrial deployment of electrified HGVs. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Battery Management in Electric Vehicles: Current Status and Future Trends: 2nd Edition)
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30 pages, 10158 KiB  
Review
A Review of Pnictogenides for Next-Generation Anode Materials for Sodium-Ion Batteries
by Sion Ha, Junhee Kim, Dong Won Kim, Jun Min Suh and Kyeong-Ho Kim
Batteries 2025, 11(2), 54; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11020054 - 29 Jan 2025
Viewed by 913
Abstract
With the growing market of secondary batteries for electric vehicles (EVs) and grid-scale energy storage systems (ESS), driven by environmental challenges, the commercialization of sodium-ion batteries (SIBs) has emerged to address the high price of lithium resources used in lithium-ion batteries (LIBs). However, [...] Read more.
With the growing market of secondary batteries for electric vehicles (EVs) and grid-scale energy storage systems (ESS), driven by environmental challenges, the commercialization of sodium-ion batteries (SIBs) has emerged to address the high price of lithium resources used in lithium-ion batteries (LIBs). However, achieving competitive energy densities of SIBs to LIBs remains challenging due to the absence of high-capacity anodes in SIBs such as the group-14 elements, Si or Ge, which are highly abundant in LIBs. This review presents potential candidates in metal pnictogenides as promising anode materials for SIBs to overcome the energy density bottleneck. The sodium-ion storage mechanisms and electrochemical performance across various compositions and intrinsic physical and chemical properties of pnictogenide have been summarized. By correlating these properties, strategic frameworks for designing advanced anode materials for next-generation SIBs were suggested. The trade-off relation in pnictogenides between the high specific capacities and the failure mechanism due to large volume expansion has been considered in this paper to address the current issues. This review covers several emerging strategies focused on improving both high reversible capacity and cycle stability. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Two-Dimensional Materials for Battery Applications)
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20 pages, 4450 KiB  
Article
Fluorination Strategies for Mn₃O₄ Nanoparticles: Enhancing Reversibility and Capacity in Li-Ion Batteries
by Régis Porhiel, Batiste Clavier, Taylan Karakoç, Sergey Pronkin, Dominique Foix, Elodie Petit, Malika El-Ghozzi and Katia Guérin
Batteries 2025, 11(2), 53; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11020053 - 28 Jan 2025
Viewed by 921
Abstract
Transition metal oxides (TMOs) occupy an increasing share in the search for new electrode materials for Li-Ion batteries. Despite promising electrochemical performances (up to 1000 mAh g−1 in the case of conversion), these materials have poor cyclability linked primarily to hysteresis phenomena. [...] Read more.
Transition metal oxides (TMOs) occupy an increasing share in the search for new electrode materials for Li-Ion batteries. Despite promising electrochemical performances (up to 1000 mAh g−1 in the case of conversion), these materials have poor cyclability linked primarily to hysteresis phenomena. To improve their electrochemical performance, one strategy consists of reducing the particle size. A second strategy relies on the incorporation of fluorine directly into electrode materials to limit the solid–electrolyte interface (SEI). Our study focuses on the impact of fluorination on the electrochemical performance of manganese oxide obtained by solid combustion synthesis (SCS). Two fluorinating agents were used: pure gaseous molecular fluorine F2 and radical fluorine F• through xenon difluoride XeF2 decomposition. The use of F2 results in strong fluorination localized primarily at the particle surface while XeF2 diffuses deeper into the particle, resulting in the removal of residual carbon from the synthesis by combustion. The electrochemical performance of the oxide fluorinated with XeF2 reaches more than 750 mAh g−1 after 160 cycles, whereas that of the oxide fluorinated by F2 barely exceeds that of the non-fluorinated oxide, less than 200 mAh g−1 after 200 cycles. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Battery Materials and Interfaces: Anode, Cathode, Separators and Electrolytes or Others)
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