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Solar, Volume 5, Issue 1 (March 2025) – 12 articles

Cover Story (view full-size image): Digital Twin (DT) for photovoltaic (PV) systems emerges as the intersect of power system transformational approaches driven by digitalization, decarbonization, decentralization, and the massive adoption of cleaner energy sources. A DT enables real-time, bidirectional data exchange and control between physical assets and their digital replicas. Unlike digital models or shadows, DTs support automated monitoring, predictive maintenance, and AI-driven analytics. While there have been limited instances of PV-DTs for energy forecasting, fault detection, and maintenance optimization, their potential extends to enabling autonomous systems such as robots and wider energy network integration. This work explores DT frameworks, challenges, and robotics integration for enhanced management. View this paper
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20 pages, 1827 KiB  
Review
Hybrid Small Modular Nuclear Reactor with Concentrated Solar Power: Towards 4+ Reactors?
by Ruben Bartali, Emanuele De Bona, Michele Bolognese, Alessandro Vaccari, Matteo Testi and Luigi Crema
Solar 2025, 5(1), 12; https://doi.org/10.3390/solar5010012 - 19 Mar 2025
Viewed by 199
Abstract
Solar thermal energy is one of the most interesting sustainable solutions for decarbonizing the energy sector. Integrating solar collectors with other energy sources is common, as seen in domestic heating, where solar collectors are combined with common heaters to reduce fuel consumption (gasoline, [...] Read more.
Solar thermal energy is one of the most interesting sustainable solutions for decarbonizing the energy sector. Integrating solar collectors with other energy sources is common, as seen in domestic heating, where solar collectors are combined with common heaters to reduce fuel consumption (gasoline, electricity, gas, and biomass) and therefore, the energy cost. Similarly, this concept can be applied to nuclear energy, where the reduction in nuclear fuel consumption is very strategic for decreasing not only its cost but also the risk in handling, transportation, and storage (both the fuel and the nuclear waste as well). Nuclear energy, on the other hand, seems to be very useful in reducing the land occupation of concentrated solar power plants (CSPs) and helping a more constant production of electricity, both points being two important bottlenecks of CSP technologies. CSP and nuclear reactors, on the other hand, share common heating technologies and both can produce energy without CO2 emissions. Solar and nuclear energy, especially with the advent of the fourth generation of small modular reactors (SMRs), present a compelling opportunity for sustainable electricity generation. In this work, we present a brief review of CSP technology, a brief review of SMR concepts and development, and a brief overview of the combination of these two technologies. The review shows that in general, combined SMR + CSP technologies offer several advantages in terms of a strong reduction in the solar field extension areas, improved dispatchability of energy, improved efficiency of the SMRs, and, in particular, lower nuclear fuel consumption (hence, e.g., with a lowered refueling frequency). Full article
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27 pages, 6539 KiB  
Review
Strategies to Reduce Urban Pollution Effects on Solar Panels: A Review
by Bingying Zheng, Yihua Hu and Mohammed Alkahtani
Solar 2025, 5(1), 11; https://doi.org/10.3390/solar5010011 - 17 Mar 2025
Viewed by 195
Abstract
Urban soiling, consisting of dust, industrial byproducts, and other pollutants, presents a significant risk to the effectiveness and safety of solar energy systems. To achieve the goal of net zero, having renewable energy systems such as solar panels in urban environments can help. [...] Read more.
Urban soiling, consisting of dust, industrial byproducts, and other pollutants, presents a significant risk to the effectiveness and safety of solar energy systems. To achieve the goal of net zero, having renewable energy systems such as solar panels in urban environments can help. This review will examine the composition and variety of urban soiling and evaluate its impact on PV installation. The study will analyze the efficiency loss attributable to soiling, focusing on its impact on small-scale installations such as rooftops, building integrated photovoltaics (BIPVs), and large-scale urban solar installations. Furthermore, this study will also investigate various developing technologies and strategies to reduce the effects of urban soiling. This encompasses the examination of automated cleaning systems and robotic maintenance, with a specific focus on their potential effectiveness. This review aims to underline the importance of addressing urban soiling within the framework of sustainable urban development and the expansion of solar energy, with further research into the development of soiling mitigation technologies. Finally, soil management and further research gaps will be discussed. Full article
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20 pages, 528 KiB  
Article
Advancing Photovoltaic Transition: Exploring Policy Frameworks for Renewable Energy Communities
by Francesca Giuliano and Andrea Pronti
Solar 2025, 5(1), 10; https://doi.org/10.3390/solar5010010 - 14 Mar 2025
Viewed by 472
Abstract
In the decarbonization process, the solar energy sector will play a crucial role, representing one of the key technologies for reducing greenhouse gas emissions. In Italy, photovoltaics stands out as the fastest-growing energy sector, thanks to the combination of favorable climatic conditions, supportive [...] Read more.
In the decarbonization process, the solar energy sector will play a crucial role, representing one of the key technologies for reducing greenhouse gas emissions. In Italy, photovoltaics stands out as the fastest-growing energy sector, thanks to the combination of favorable climatic conditions, supportive policies, and a growing interest in renewable energy sources. In this context, renewable energy communities (RECs) emerge as potential strategic tools for promoting the development of photovoltaics nationally and at the European level. Therefore, this study aims to examine the policy and regulatory frameworks governing RECs in Europe and Italy, highlighting their impact on the establishment, operation, and evolution of these communities. Through a critical analysis of legislative documents at both the European and national levels, this research identifies the key factors shaping the growth and functionality of RECs, such as governance structures, economic incentives, and social inclusivity. This study underscores the dual influence of comprehensive regulation and a certain degree of flexibility in fostering RECs’ adaptability to diverse contexts. Additionally, it identifies existing challenges, including regional implementation disparities, legal ambiguities, and potential conflicts with other renewable energy policies. The findings contribute to the ongoing discourse on decentralized energy systems, providing insights for policymakers to refine frameworks and maximize RECs’ contributions to sustainable energy transitions. Full article
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20 pages, 2203 KiB  
Article
Optimizing Solar-Integrated Microgrid Design for Sustainable Rural Electrification: Insights from the LEOPARD Project
by Ahmed Rachid, Talha Batuhan Korkut, Jean-Sebastien Cardot, Cheikh M. F. Kébé, Ababacar Ndiaye, Léonide Michael Sinsin and François Xavier Fifatin
Solar 2025, 5(1), 9; https://doi.org/10.3390/solar5010009 - 7 Mar 2025
Viewed by 447
Abstract
This paper presents findings from the LEOPARD project, part of the LEAP-RE program, a joint European Union (EU) and African Union initiative to advance renewable energy solutions. The study employs a simulation-based approach to optimize solar-integrated microgrid configurations for rural electrification. The project [...] Read more.
This paper presents findings from the LEOPARD project, part of the LEAP-RE program, a joint European Union (EU) and African Union initiative to advance renewable energy solutions. The study employs a simulation-based approach to optimize solar-integrated microgrid configurations for rural electrification. The project deployed a solar-integrated pilot microgrid at the Songhai agroecological center in Benin to address key challenges, including load profile estimation, energy balancing, and diesel dependency reduction. A hybrid methodology integrating predictive modeling, real-time solar and weather data analysis, and performance simulations was employed, leading to a 65% reduction in diesel reliance and an LCOE of EUR 0.47/kWh. Quality control measures, including compliance with IEC 61215 and IEC 62485-2 standards, ensured system reliability under extreme conditions. Over 150 days, the system consistently supplied energy, preventing 10.16 tons of CO2 emissions. Beyond the Benin pilot, the project conducted feasibility assessments in Senegal to evaluate microgrid replicability across different socio-economic and environmental conditions. These analyses highlight the scalability potential and the economic viability of expanding solar microgrids in rural areas. Additionally, this research explores innovative business models and real-time diagnostics to enhance microgrid sustainability. By providing a replicable framework, it promotes long-term energy access and regional adaptability. With a focus on community involvement and capacity building, this study supports efforts to reduce energy poverty, strengthen European–African collaboration, and advance the global clean energy agenda. Full article
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15 pages, 7161 KiB  
Article
Power Generation Time Series for Solar Energy Generation: Modelling with ATlite in South Africa
by Nicolene Botha, Toshka Coleman, Gert Wessels, Maximilian Kleebauer and Stefan Karamanski
Solar 2025, 5(1), 8; https://doi.org/10.3390/solar5010008 - 7 Mar 2025
Viewed by 546
Abstract
The global energy landscape is experiencing growing challenges, with energy crises in regions such as South Africa underscoring the drive to accelerate the shift toward renewable energy solutions. This paper presents an approach for improving solar energy planning, specifically focusing on leveraging the [...] Read more.
The global energy landscape is experiencing growing challenges, with energy crises in regions such as South Africa underscoring the drive to accelerate the shift toward renewable energy solutions. This paper presents an approach for improving solar energy planning, specifically focusing on leveraging the capabilities of the ATlite software in conjunction with custom data. Using mathematical models, ATlite (which was initially developed by the Renewable Energy Group at the Frankfurt Institute for Advances Studies) is a Python software package that converts historical weather data into power generation potentials and time series for renewable energy technologies such as solar photovoltaic (PV) panels and wind turbines. The software efficiently combines atmospheric and terrain data from large regions using user-defined weights based on land use or energy yield. In this study, European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts reanalysis data (ERA5) data was modified using Kriging to enhance the resolution of each data field. This refined data was applied in ATlite, instead of utilizing the standard built-in data download and processing tools, to generate solar capacity factor maps and solar generation time series. This was utilized to identify specific PV technologies as well as optimal sites for solar power. Thereafter, a simulated power generation time series was compared with measured solar generation data, resulting in a root mean square error (RMSE) of 19.6 kW for a 250 kWp installation. This approach’s flexibility and versatility in the inclusion of custom data, led to the conclusion that it could be a suitable option for renewable energy planning and decision making in South Africa and globally, providing value to solar installers and planners. Full article
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29 pages, 3867 KiB  
Review
Enhanced Solar Photovoltaic System Management and Integration: The Digital Twin Concept
by Olufemi Olayiwola, Umit Cali, Miles Elsden and Poonam Yadav
Solar 2025, 5(1), 7; https://doi.org/10.3390/solar5010007 - 6 Mar 2025
Viewed by 1058
Abstract
The rapid acceptance of solar photovoltaic (PV) energy across various countries has created a pressing need for more coordinated approaches to the sustainable monitoring and maintenance of these widely distributed installations. To address this challenge, several digitization architectures have been proposed, with one [...] Read more.
The rapid acceptance of solar photovoltaic (PV) energy across various countries has created a pressing need for more coordinated approaches to the sustainable monitoring and maintenance of these widely distributed installations. To address this challenge, several digitization architectures have been proposed, with one of the most recently applied being the digital twin (DT) system architecture. DTs have proven effective in predictive maintenance, rapid prototyping, efficient manufacturing, and reliable system monitoring. However, while the DT concept is well established in fields like wind energy conversion and monitoring, its scope of implementation in PV remains quite limited. Additionally, the recent increased adoption of autonomous platforms, particularly robotics, has expanded the scope of PV management and revealed gaps in real-time monitoring needs. DT platforms can be redesigned to ease such applications and enable integration into the broader energy network. This work provides a system-level overview of current trends, challenges, and future opportunities for DTs within renewable energy systems, focusing on PV systems. It also highlights how advances in artificial intelligence (AI), the internet-of-Things (IoT), and autonomous systems can be leveraged to create a digitally connected energy infrastructure that supports sustainable energy supply and maintenance. Full article
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25 pages, 2431 KiB  
Article
Comparative Performance Evaluation of YOLOv5, YOLOv8, and YOLOv11 for Solar Panel Defect Detection
by Rahima Khanam, Tahreem Asghar and Muhammad Hussain
Solar 2025, 5(1), 6; https://doi.org/10.3390/solar5010006 - 21 Feb 2025
Viewed by 1289
Abstract
The reliable operation of photovoltaic (PV) systems is essential for sustainable energy production, yet their efficiency is often compromised by defects such as bird droppings, cracks, and dust accumulation. Automated defect detection is critical for addressing these challenges in large-scale solar farms, where [...] Read more.
The reliable operation of photovoltaic (PV) systems is essential for sustainable energy production, yet their efficiency is often compromised by defects such as bird droppings, cracks, and dust accumulation. Automated defect detection is critical for addressing these challenges in large-scale solar farms, where manual inspections are impractical. This study evaluates three YOLO object detection models—YOLOv5, YOLOv8, and YOLOv11—on a comprehensive dataset to identify solar panel defects. YOLOv5 achieved the fastest inference time (7.1 ms per image) and high precision (94.1%) for cracked panels. YOLOv8 excelled in recall for rare defects, such as bird drops (79.2%), while YOLOv11 delivered the highest mAP@0.5 (93.4%), demonstrating a balanced performance across the defect categories. Despite the strong performance for common defects like dusty panels (mAP@0.5 > 98%), bird drop detection posed challenges due to dataset imbalances. These results highlight the trade-offs between accuracy and computational efficiency, providing actionable insights for deploying automated defect detection systems to enhance PV system reliability and scalability. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Advances in Solar Photovoltaic Protection)
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18 pages, 12745 KiB  
Article
Characterization of a Densely Packed Photovoltaic Array with RXX Homogenizer in a High-Flux Solar Furnace
by Ernesto Anguera Romero, Nidia Aracely Cisneros-Cárdenas and Claudio A. Estrada Gasca
Solar 2025, 5(1), 5; https://doi.org/10.3390/solar5010005 - 15 Feb 2025
Viewed by 355
Abstract
A theoretical and experimental evaluation was conducted on a prototype radiative flux homogenizer (HOFRAC) specifically designed for the Solar Furnace at Instituto de Energías Renovables (HoSIER) of Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México. The development of HOFRAC included three versions (HOFRAC-PRO, HOFRAC-PRI, and HOFRAC-PRIK); [...] Read more.
A theoretical and experimental evaluation was conducted on a prototype radiative flux homogenizer (HOFRAC) specifically designed for the Solar Furnace at Instituto de Energías Renovables (HoSIER) of Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México. The development of HOFRAC included three versions (HOFRAC-PRO, HOFRAC-PRI, and HOFRAC-PRIK); each iteration incorporated improvements based on theoretical modeling and experimental results. Evaluations were performed using ray-tracing simulations and experimental tests capturing radiative flux distribution images. The last two versions were used to characterize a densely packed photovoltaic array operated in the solar furnace. Some results of this study show that misaligned mirrors in the furnace were identified as the main problem in achieving a high flux uniformity degree for photovoltaic concentration applications. Full article
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31 pages, 4525 KiB  
Review
From Waste to Resource: Exploring the Current Challenges and Future Directions of Photovoltaic Solar Cell Recycling
by Ghadeer Badran and Vlado K. Lazarov
Solar 2025, 5(1), 4; https://doi.org/10.3390/solar5010004 - 11 Feb 2025
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1159
Abstract
The rapid proliferation of photovoltaic (PV) solar cells as a clean energy source has raised significant concerns regarding their end-of-life (EoL) management, particularly in terms of sustainability and waste reduction. This review comprehensively examines challenges, opportunities, and future directions in the recycling of [...] Read more.
The rapid proliferation of photovoltaic (PV) solar cells as a clean energy source has raised significant concerns regarding their end-of-life (EoL) management, particularly in terms of sustainability and waste reduction. This review comprehensively examines challenges, opportunities, and future directions in the recycling of PV solar cells, focusing on mechanical, thermal, and chemical recycling techniques. It also evaluates the scalability and practicality of these methods to different PV technologies, including crystalline silicon and thin-film modules. It explores the economic and environmental impacts of these processes, highlighting the necessity of developing robust recycling infrastructure and innovative technologies to address the anticipated surge in PV waste. Additionally, this review discusses the critical role of government policies and industry collaboration in overcoming the barriers to effective recycling. Furthermore, the importance of integrating design-for-recyclability principles into PV module development is emphasized, as it can significantly enhance material recovery and process efficiency. By advancing these strategies, the solar industry can achieve greater sustainability, reduce resource depletion, and mitigate environmental risks, thereby ensuring the long-term viability of solar energy as a key component of global renewable energy initiatives. Full article
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17 pages, 3344 KiB  
Article
Co-Location Potential of Floating PV with Hydropower Plants: Case Study in Ecuador
by Carlos D. Rodríguez-Gallegos, Oktoviano Gandhi, César A. Rodríguez-Gallegos and Manuel S. Alvarez-Alvarado
Solar 2025, 5(1), 3; https://doi.org/10.3390/solar5010003 - 4 Feb 2025
Viewed by 1059
Abstract
This study explores the potential for co-locating floating photovoltaics (FPVs) with existing hydropower plants (HPPs) in Ecuador. Ecuador’s heavy reliance on hydropower for electricity generation, combined with recent blackouts caused by prolonged dry seasons, underscores the importance of diversifying energy sources. The integration [...] Read more.
This study explores the potential for co-locating floating photovoltaics (FPVs) with existing hydropower plants (HPPs) in Ecuador. Ecuador’s heavy reliance on hydropower for electricity generation, combined with recent blackouts caused by prolonged dry seasons, underscores the importance of diversifying energy sources. The integration of FPVs with HPPs offers a promising opportunity to enhance energy security by reducing dependency on a single energy source and improving economic, electrical, and environmental outcomes. In this paper, we assess all HPPs in Ecuador and quantify the potential performance of FPV systems when installed at their sites. Our results show that FPV systems can not only contribute additional electricity to the grid but also improve HPP performance by reducing water evaporation from reservoirs and maintaining generation capacity during dry seasons, when solar irradiation is typically higher. To model the energy production, yield, and performance of the FPV systems, we applied RINA’s methodology to estimate representative weather conditions for each site and simulate FPV performance, accounting for system design loss factors. Additionally, we calculated the water savings resulting from FPV installation. Our findings reveal that, out of approximately 70 HPPs in Ecuador, 11 present favorable conditions for large-scale FPV deployment. Among these, Cumbayá HPP (40 MW) exhibited the most suitable conditions, supporting a maximum FPV capacity of 17 MWp. Marcel Laniado de Wind HPP (213 MW) and Mazar HPP (170 MW) were also identified as optimal candidates, each with potential FPV capacities equal to their installed HPP capacities. While this study primarily aims to provide scientific evidence on the potential of FPV-HPP co-location, the results and methodology can also guide Ecuadorian government authorities and investors in adopting FPV technology to strengthen the country’s energy infrastructure. Full article
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26 pages, 5496 KiB  
Article
A Tool for a Fast and Accurate Evaluation of the Energy Production of Bifacial Photovoltaic Modules
by Vincenzo d’Alessandro, Santolo Daliento, Mahmoud Dhimish and Pierluigi Guerriero
Solar 2025, 5(1), 2; https://doi.org/10.3390/solar5010002 - 16 Jan 2025
Viewed by 849
Abstract
In this work, we propose a simulation tool designed for the analysis and optimization of bifacial photovoltaic (PV) modules, which are currently under the spotlight in the renewable energy scenario. The tool is conceived to support researchers and engineers by providing fast and [...] Read more.
In this work, we propose a simulation tool designed for the analysis and optimization of bifacial photovoltaic (PV) modules, which are currently under the spotlight in the renewable energy scenario. The tool is conceived to support researchers and engineers by providing fast and accurate predictions of the PV module yield under various operating and environmental conditions. For a chosen geographical site, the impact of module orientation, tilt, albedo, sky conditions, ambient temperature, and so on can be effortlessly determined. In case of nonuniformity across the cells dictated by localized architectural shading, dirt, bird drops, and defects, a circuit-based cell-level approach can be activated to compute the module production. An extensive simulation campaign is performed by assuming that the panels are installed in Naples without loss of generality. Results are shown to give detailed insights into the performance of bifacial modules, thus providing unambiguous guidelines for their correct installation. Further analyses are conducted to demonstrate the tool capability to quantify the detrimental influence of a poorly-irradiated cell on the backside, as well as of cracked cells. Full article
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13 pages, 4642 KiB  
Article
Investigation of Grid-Tied Photovoltaic Power Plant on Medium-Voltage Feeder: Palestine Polytechnic University Case Study
by Maher Maghalseh, Nassim Iqteit, Haitham Alqadi and Salman Ajib
Solar 2025, 5(1), 1; https://doi.org/10.3390/solar5010001 - 16 Jan 2025
Viewed by 843
Abstract
The conventional unidirectional power flow model of centralized energy grids is being revolutionized by integrating renewable energy sources, particularly photovoltaic (PV) systems, to meet the escalating demand for electricity while ensuring sustainability. However, this integration challenges the efficiency and performance of power systems [...] Read more.
The conventional unidirectional power flow model of centralized energy grids is being revolutionized by integrating renewable energy sources, particularly photovoltaic (PV) systems, to meet the escalating demand for electricity while ensuring sustainability. However, this integration challenges the efficiency and performance of power systems and impacts various parameters, including power quality, voltage profile, power factor, power loss, and load flow. This paper investigates the effects and performance of a grid-tied PV system integrated into the conventional power system, focusing on the Palestine Polytechnic University (PPU) 230 kWp PV plant as a real-world case study. Simulations conducted using ETAP software revealed that integrating the PV system resulted in a slight increase in the voltage level at the main bus of the PPU feeder, with an increase of 0.03% at the medium-voltage level. Additionally, the voltage level at the Point of Common Coupling (PCC) increased by 0.51% with a PV penetration level of only 14.7%, which remains within the acceptable range according to IEEE 1547 standards. These findings underscore the minimal impact of the PV system on the voltage profile and highlight the system’s ability to maintain power quality and efficiency even with the addition of renewable energy sources. The daily load profiles were studied with and without the PV system, providing a comprehensive analysis of its effects on the grid. Full article
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