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21 pages, 3660 KB

Open AccessArticle

Stability Analysis of Surface Facilities in Underground Mining and the Cumulative Impact of Adjacent Mining Activities

by Guang Zhang, Yang Yuan, Yuan Gao, Zhixiong Luo and Lianku Xie

Appl. Sci. 2025, 15(23), 12424; https://doi.org/10.3390/app152312424 - 23 Nov 2025

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Underground mining often causes surface displacement and deformation above and around mined-out areas, and mining-induced subsidence has become a growing concern for ground stability worldwide. Given the proximity between the studied mine and a neighboring operation, potential mutual influences during extraction were examined [...] Read more.

Underground mining often causes surface displacement and deformation above and around mined-out areas, and mining-induced subsidence has become a growing concern for ground stability worldwide. Given the proximity between the studied mine and a neighboring operation, potential mutual influences during extraction were examined to ensure the safety of surface structures. This study analyzes the stability of the overlying strata by combining theoretical prediction and numerical simulation, considering the cumulative effects of adjacent mining activities. The main findings are as follows: (1) The probability integration method was used to predict surface deformation and subsidence caused by underground mining, providing deformation data for the 4# shaft, 4# return air shaft, 5# return air shaft, and surrounding ground surface. (2) A three-dimensional geomechanical model was built using FLAC3D finite-difference software based on actual topographical and geological data to assess the impact of mining on overburden stability. Results show that the surrounding rock remained primarily in the elastic stage, with a maximum surface subsidence of 47.7 mm, confirming the structural stability of the 4# and 5# shafts. (3) Analyzing stress redistribution during deep ore extraction in both mining zones reveals that stress disturbances were mainly confined to the excavation areas, with a maximum local stress concentration of 83.34 MPa at stope corners. The combined mining activities resulted in an overall subsidence of approximately 48.7 mm, which decreased gradually outward from the center. This research presents an integrated theoretical and numerical framework that combines probability integration theory with FLAC3D simulation to assess the cumulative deformation and stress interactions of neighboring underground mines. The proposed method offers a practical and transferable tool for evaluating regional mine stability and surface deformation risks in multi-mine districts. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Rock Mechanics and Mining Engineering)

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36 pages, 12273 KB

Open AccessArticle

Axial Load Transfer Mechanisms in Fully Grouted Fibreglass Rock Bolts: Experimental and Numerical Investigations

by Shima Entezam, Ali Mirzaghorbanali, Behshad Jodeiri Shokri, Alireza Entezam, Hadi Nourizadeh, Peter Craig, Kevin McDougall, Warna Karunasena and Naj Aziz

Appl. Sci. 2025, 15(20), 11293; https://doi.org/10.3390/app152011293 - 21 Oct 2025

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 842

Abstract

Fully grouted rock bolts play a vital role in stabilising underground excavations, particularly in corrosive environments where material properties, geometric configuration, and installation conditions influence their load transfer performance. Although the practical importance of fully grouted fibreglass rock bolts is well recognised, quantitative [...] Read more.

Fully grouted rock bolts play a vital role in stabilising underground excavations, particularly in corrosive environments where material properties, geometric configuration, and installation conditions influence their load transfer performance. Although the practical importance of fully grouted fibreglass rock bolts is well recognised, quantitative evidence on their axial load transfer mechanisms remains limited. Prior work has primarily centred on steel rock bolts, with few studies on how embedment length, grout stiffness, interface roughness and confining stress govern bond mobilisation in fully grouted fibreglass rock bolts, indicating a clear need for further scientific investigation. This study examines the axial load transfer and shear behaviour of fully grouted fibreglass rock bolts, focusing on the effects of embedment length (EL), grout properties, and boundary conditions. A comprehensive series of laboratory pull-out tests were conducted on two widely used Australian glass fibre reinforced polymer (GFRP) rock bolts, TD22 and TD25, with diameters of 22 mm and 25 mm, respectively, under varying ELs and grout curing times to evaluate their axial performance. Additionally, single shear tests and uniaxial compressive strength (UCS) tests were conducted to assess the shear behaviour of the rock bolts and the mechanical properties of the grout. The results showed that increased EL, bolt diameter, and grout curing time generally enhance axial capacity. With grout curing from day 7 to the day 28, the influence of embedment length became increasingly pronounced, as the axial peak load rose from 35 kN (TD22-50, 7 days) to 116 kN (TD22-150, 28 days) and from 39 kN (TD25-50, 7 days) to 115 kN (TD25-150, 28 days), confirming that both longer bonded lengths and extended curing significantly enhance the axial load-bearing capacity of fully grouted GFRP rock bolts. However, the TD22 rock bolts exhibited superior shear strength and ductility compared to the TD25 rock bolts. Also, a calibrated distinct element model (DEM) was developed in 3DEC to simulate axial load transfer mechanisms and validated against experimental results. Parametric studies revealed that increasing the grout stiffness from 5 e7 N/m to 5 e8 N/m increased the peak load from 45 kN to 205 kN (approximately 350%), while reducing the peak displacement, indicating a shift toward a more brittle response. Similarly, increasing the grout-bolt interface roughness boosted the peak load by 150% (from 60 kN to 150 kN) and enhanced residual stability, raising the residual load from 12 kN to 93.5 kN. In contrast, confining stress (up to 5 MPa) did not affect the 110 kN peak load but reduced the residual load by up to 60% in isotropic conditions. These quantitative findings provide critical insights into the performance of GFRP bolts and support their optimised design for underground reinforcement applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Rock Mechanics and Mining Engineering)

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18 pages, 4946 KB

Open AccessArticle

Probabilistic Analysis of Wedge Failures and Stability of Underground Workings with Combined Support Under Thrust Faulting Conditions

by Vladimir Demin, Alexey Kalinin, Nadezhda Tomilova, Aleksandr Tomilov, Natalya Mutovina, Assem Akpanbayeva and Tatiana Demina

Appl. Sci. 2025, 15(19), 10533; https://doi.org/10.3390/app151910533 - 29 Sep 2025

Viewed by 1121

Abstract

Ensuring the stability of surrounding rock in underground excavations is a critical prerequisite for safe mining operations. This study examines the mechanisms of wedge failure formation and determines the performance of a combined support system (rock bolts + shotcrete) through probabilistic analysis. Field [...] Read more.

Ensuring the stability of surrounding rock in underground excavations is a critical prerequisite for safe mining operations. This study examines the mechanisms of wedge failure formation and determines the performance of a combined support system (rock bolts + shotcrete) through probabilistic analysis. Field investigations in the Zhylandy ore field (Kazakhstan) included fracture mapping, rock mass quality assessment (RQD), fracture frequency (FF), and in situ stress measurements, which confirmed a thrust-faulting regime. Numerical modeling with Dips ver.8 and UnWedge ver.6 software (Rocscience) identified critical excavation orientations of 120° and 141° associated with maximum-volume wedge formation, as well as a “safe orientation window” of 70° ± 10°. The probabilistic analysis showed that rock bolts alone yield a factor of safety (FS) < 1.2, whereas the combined support system increases FS to 2.4–3.5, significantly reducing the likelihood of wedge failures. An adaptive framework integrating numerical modeling with intelligent monitoring (“monitor → update model → adjust support”) is proposed, allowing real-time adjustment of support parameters and optimization of material consumption. The practical significance of this work lies in providing design-ready recommendations for support selection and excavation orientation, contributing to accident prevention and sustainable mining operations. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Rock Mechanics and Mining Engineering)

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41 pages, 18706 KB

Open AccessArticle

Multiscale Analysis and Preventive Measures for Slope Stability in Open-Pit Mines Using a Multimethod Coupling Approach

by Hengyu Chen, Baoliang Wang and Zhongsi Dou

Appl. Sci. 2025, 15(19), 10367; https://doi.org/10.3390/app151910367 - 24 Sep 2025

Viewed by 958

Abstract

This study investigates slope stability in an open-pit mining area by integrating engineering geological surveys, field investigations, and laboratory rock mechanics tests. A coordinated multimethod analysis was carried out using finite element-based numerical simulations from both two-dimensional and three-dimensional perspectives. The integrated approach [...] Read more.

This study investigates slope stability in an open-pit mining area by integrating engineering geological surveys, field investigations, and laboratory rock mechanics tests. A coordinated multimethod analysis was carried out using finite element-based numerical simulations from both two-dimensional and three-dimensional perspectives. The integrated approach revealed deformation patterns across the slopes and established a multiscale analytical framework. The results indicate that the slope failure modes primarily include circular and compound types, with existing step slopes showing a potential risk of wedge failure. While the designed slope meets safety requirements under three working conditions overall, the strongly weathered layer in profile XL3 requires a slope angle reduction from 38° to 37° to comply with standards. Three-dimensional simulations identify the main deformations in the middle-lower sections of the western area and zones B and C, with faults located at the core of the deformation zone. Rainfall and blasting vibrations significantly increase surface tensile stress, accelerating deformation. Although wedges in profiles XL1 and XL4 remain generally stable, coupled blasting–rainfall effects may still induce potential collapse in fractured areas, necessitating preventive measures such as concrete support and bolt support, along with real-time monitoring to dynamically optimize reinforcement strategies for precise risk control. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Rock Mechanics and Mining Engineering)

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22 pages, 4194 KB

Open AccessArticle

Study on the Evaluation System of Rock Mass Quality of Slopes Under the Influence of Freeze–Thaw Cycles

by Zhenling Gao, Penghai Zhang, Ning Gao, Wanni Yan, Honglei Liu and Jun Hou

Appl. Sci. 2025, 15(18), 10010; https://doi.org/10.3390/app151810010 - 12 Sep 2025

Viewed by 758

Abstract

This study takes the Wushan open-pit mine, a typical open-pit mine in cold regions, as the engineering background. Based on the measured extreme temperature values of slope rock masses over one year, a freeze–thaw cycle testing scheme is designed. By conducting experiments under [...] Read more.

This study takes the Wushan open-pit mine, a typical open-pit mine in cold regions, as the engineering background. Based on the measured extreme temperature values of slope rock masses over one year, a freeze–thaw cycle testing scheme is designed. By conducting experiments under varying numbers of freeze–thaw cycles and burial depths, the degradation patterns of uniaxial compressive strength and tensile strength of the rock are revealed. The rock material constant

m i

, representing the rock’s hardness and brittleness, is calculated based on the experimental results. Furthermore, shear tests are carried out on rock masses containing through-going structural planes and infill materials to derive the variation patterns of cohesion and internal friction angle. A comprehensive analysis is conducted on the effects of freeze–thaw cycling and burial depth on rock mechanical properties and infill material parameters, leading to the construction of a spatial variability characterization model for mechanical parameters. Finally, the rock mass fracture coefficient

K_{w}

and infill fracture coefficient

K_{f}

are proposed to modify the Hoek–Brown failure criterion under freeze–thaw conditions, thereby providing theoretical support for slope stability analysis and engineering design in cold regions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Rock Mechanics and Mining Engineering)

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27 pages, 5466 KB

Open AccessArticle

Experimental Study on Damage and Degradation Mechanism of Biotite Granulite Under Freeze–Thaw Action

by Bing Liang and Dong Xia

Appl. Sci. 2025, 15(17), 9665; https://doi.org/10.3390/app15179665 - 2 Sep 2025

Viewed by 815

Abstract

With the increasing intensity of resource development in alpine regions, numerous geotechnical engineering problems in cold regions have become increasingly prominent. In order to explore the damage and deterioration laws of rocks caused by freeze–thaw action, this paper takes the biotite granulite on [...] Read more.

With the increasing intensity of resource development in alpine regions, numerous geotechnical engineering problems in cold regions have become increasingly prominent. In order to explore the damage and deterioration laws of rocks caused by freeze–thaw action, this paper takes the biotite granulite on the eastern slope of Yanshan Iron Mine as the research object. By analyzing the changes in mechanical and acoustic emission parameters of rock samples after freeze–thaw, and combining with existing freeze–thaw damage theories, the suitable freeze–thaw damage mechanism for this rock is further explored, and a freeze–thaw damage model for biotite granulite with low and high freeze–thaw cycles is established. The results of this study demonstrate that biotite granulite subjected to a lower number of freeze–thaw cycles exhibits significantly greater reductions in peak strength, elastic modulus, acoustic emission (AE) hit counts, cumulative ringing counts, and cumulative energy compared with specimens exposed to a higher number of cycles. As the freeze–thaw cycles increase, the formation of newly generated large-scale fractures during failure becomes progressively less pronounced, leading to a diminished resistance to deformation and a gradual increase in plastic deformation during loading. A coupled damage variable relationship was established for biotite granulite under both low and high freeze–thaw regimes based on cumulative AE ringing counts. In the early three stress stages, specimens subjected to fewer cycles exhibited fewer microcracks, with no clear spatial correlation between their distribution and the eventual fracture coalescence zones, whereas specimens exposed to a higher number of cycles showed a distinct sequential relationship between microcrack initiation sites and subsequent crack coalescence. Building upon existing freeze–thaw damage theories, the freeze–thaw damage mechanism specific to biotite granulite was further elucidated. Accordingly, a freeze–thaw damage model for low- and high-cycle conditions was developed and preliminarily validated. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Rock Mechanics and Mining Engineering)

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21 pages, 12309 KB

Open AccessArticle

Analysis of Surface Runoff and Ponding Infiltration Patterns Induced by Underground Block Caving Mining—A Case Study

by Shihui Jiao, Yong Zhao, Tianhong Yang, Xin Wen, Qingshan Ma, Qianbai Zhao and Honglei Liu

Appl. Sci. 2025, 15(17), 9516; https://doi.org/10.3390/app15179516 - 29 Aug 2025

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 876

Abstract

Surface subsidence induced by underground mining in mining areas significantly alters surface topography and hydrogeological conditions, forming depressions and fissures, thereby affecting regional runoff-ponding processes and groundwater infiltration patterns. Accurate assessment of infiltration volumes in subsidence zones under heavy rainfall is crucial for [...] Read more.

Surface subsidence induced by underground mining in mining areas significantly alters surface topography and hydrogeological conditions, forming depressions and fissures, thereby affecting regional runoff-ponding processes and groundwater infiltration patterns. Accurate assessment of infiltration volumes in subsidence zones under heavy rainfall is crucial for designing underground drainage systems and evaluating water-inrush risks in open-pit to underground transition mines. Taking the surface subsidence area of the Dahongshan Iron Mine as a case study, this paper proposes a rainfall infiltration calculation method based on the precise delineation of surface ponding-infiltration zones. By numerically simulating the subsidence range, the study divides the area into two distinct infiltration characteristic zones under different mining states: the caved zone and the water-conducting fracture zone. The rainfall infiltration volume under storm conditions was calculated separately for each zone. The results indicate that high-intensity mining-induced subsidence leads to a nonlinear surge in stormwater infiltration, primarily due to the significant expansion of the highly permeable caved zone. The core mechanism lies in the area expansion of the caved zone as a rapid infiltration channel, which dominates the overall infiltration capacity multiplication. These findings provide a scientific basis for the design of mine drainage systems and the prevention of water-inrush disasters. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Rock Mechanics and Mining Engineering)

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20 pages, 5383 KB

Open AccessArticle

Research on Deformation Characteristics and Failure Modes of Tunnel Anchoring in Conglomerate Layers Based on Field Scaled Model Tests

by Zhijin Shen, Menglong Dong, Li Zhang, Aipeng Tang and Xiaokai Li

Appl. Sci. 2025, 15(14), 7743; https://doi.org/10.3390/app15147743 - 10 Jul 2025

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 743

Abstract

Tunnel anchors are critical for suspension bridge stability, yet their theoretical framework remains underdeveloped, limiting engineering applications. This study addresses this gap through a pioneering 1:12 in situ scaled model test, combining geological surveys, rock mechanics testing, and large-scale experimentation on a Yangtze [...] Read more.

Tunnel anchors are critical for suspension bridge stability, yet their theoretical framework remains underdeveloped, limiting engineering applications. This study addresses this gap through a pioneering 1:12 in situ scaled model test, combining geological surveys, rock mechanics testing, and large-scale experimentation on a Yangtze River bridge case. Key findings include (1) quantified rock mechanics parameters for anchorage conglomerates, (2) load–displacement relationships revealing surrounding rock-dominated failure, and (3) deformation thresholds for anchor integrity. The 1:12 in situ model overcomes lab-scale limitations, providing the first high-fidelity validation of tunnel anchor behavior. The results offer essential design benchmarks, advancing both theory and practice for large-span bridges. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Rock Mechanics and Mining Engineering)

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21 pages, 6033 KB

Open AccessArticle

Study on Microseismic Monitoring of Landslide Induced by Blasting Caving

by Fuhua Peng and Weijun Wang

Appl. Sci. 2025, 15(13), 7567; https://doi.org/10.3390/app15137567 - 5 Jul 2025

Viewed by 1046

Abstract

This study focuses on the monitoring and early warning of landslide hazards induced by blasting caving in the Shizhuyuan polymetallic mine. A 30-channel microseismic monitoring system was deployed to capture the spatiotemporal characteristics of rock mass fracturing during a large-scale directional stratified blasting [...] Read more.

This study focuses on the monitoring and early warning of landslide hazards induced by blasting caving in the Shizhuyuan polymetallic mine. A 30-channel microseismic monitoring system was deployed to capture the spatiotemporal characteristics of rock mass fracturing during a large-scale directional stratified blasting operation (419 tons) conducted on 21 June 2012. A total of 85 microseismic events were recorded, revealing two distinct zones of intense rock failure: Zone I (below 630 m elevation, P1–P3, C6–C8) and Zone II (above 630 m elevation, P4–P5, C1–C6). The upper slope collapse occurred within 5 min post-blasting, as documented by real-time monitoring and video recordings. Principal component analysis (PCA) was applied to 54 microseismic events in Zone II to determine the kinematic characteristics of the slip surface, yielding a dip direction of 324.6° and a dip angle of 73.2°. Complementary moment tensor analysis further revealed that shear failure dominated the slope instability, with pronounced shear fracturing observed in the 645–700 m height range. This study innovatively integrates spatial microseismic event distribution with geomechanical mechanisms, elucidating the dynamic evolution of blasting-induced landslides. The proposed methodology provides a novel approach for monitoring and forecasting slope instability triggered by underground mining, offering significant implications for disaster prevention in similar mining contexts. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Rock Mechanics and Mining Engineering)

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22 pages, 9767 KB

Open AccessArticle

Freeze–Thaw-Induced Degradation Mechanisms and Slope Stability of Filled Fractured Rock Masses in Cold Region Open-Pit Mines

by Jun Hou, Penghai Zhang, Ning Gao, Wanni Yan and Qinglei Yu

Appl. Sci. 2025, 15(13), 7429; https://doi.org/10.3390/app15137429 - 2 Jul 2025

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1204

Abstract

In cold regions, the rock mass of open-pit mine slopes is continuously exposed to freeze–thaw (FT) environments, during which the fracture structures and their infilling materials undergo significant degradation, severely affecting slope stability and the assessment of service life. Conventional laboratory [...] Read more.

In cold regions, the rock mass of open-pit mine slopes is continuously exposed to freeze–thaw (FT) environments, during which the fracture structures and their infilling materials undergo significant degradation, severely affecting slope stability and the assessment of service life. Conventional laboratory FT tests are typically based on uniform temperature settings, which fail to reflect the actual thermal variations at different burial depths, thereby limiting the accuracy of mechanical parameter acquisition. Taking the Wushan open-pit mine as the engineering background, this study establishes a temperature–depth relationship, defines multiple thermal intervals, and conducts direct shear tests on structural plane filling materials under various FT conditions to characterize the evolution of cohesion and internal friction angle. Results from rock mass testing and numerical simulation demonstrate that shear strength parameters exhibit an exponential decline with increasing FT cycles and decreasing burial depth, with the filling material playing a dominant role in the initial stage of degradation. Furthermore, a two-dimensional fracture network model of the rock mass was constructed, and the representative elementary volume (REV) was determined through the evolution of equivalent plastic strain. Based on this, spatial assignment of slope strength was performed, followed by stability analysis. Based on regression fitting using 0–25 FT cycles, regression model predictions indicate that when the number of FT cycles exceeds 42, the slope safety factor drops below 1.0, entering a critical instability state. This research successfully establishes a spatial field of mechanical parameters and evaluates slope stability, providing a theoretical foundation and parameter support for the long-term service evaluation and stability assessment of cold-region open-pit mine slopes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Rock Mechanics and Mining Engineering)

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18 pages, 22803 KB

Open AccessArticle

Strength Deterioration Pattern and Stability Evaluation of Open−Pit Mine Slopes in Cold Regions Under Freeze–Thaw Cycles

by Penghai Zhang, Ning Gao, Wanni Yan, Jun Hou and Honglei Liu

Appl. Sci. 2025, 15(9), 4853; https://doi.org/10.3390/app15094853 - 27 Apr 2025

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1153

Abstract

With the gradual depletion of mineral resources in temperate regions, cold regions have become primary areas for mineral extraction. However, the freeze–thaw phenomena induced by temperature fluctuations pose significant threats to the stability of rock masses on open−pit mine slopes, further affecting normal [...] Read more.

With the gradual depletion of mineral resources in temperate regions, cold regions have become primary areas for mineral extraction. However, the freeze–thaw phenomena induced by temperature fluctuations pose significant threats to the stability of rock masses on open−pit mine slopes, further affecting normal mining operations. To investigate the strength degradation and stability evolution patterns of freeze–thaw slope rock masses, this study takes the Wushan Open−Pit Mine as its engineering context. We analyzed the relationship between rock temperature and burial depth, conducted freeze–thaw cyclic tests under realistic temperature ranges, and developed a mechanical parameter characterization model for freeze–thaw rock masses by integrating the generalized Hoek–Brown strength criterion. Slope safety factors and potential landslide mechanisms were determined through numerical simulations and the strength reduction method. Key findings include the following: (1) Shallow rock temperatures exhibit high synchronization with atmospheric temperature, characterized by large fluctuations and rapid variation rates, whereas deep rock demonstrates opposite trends. (2) As freeze–thaw cycles increase and burial depth decreases, the internal friction angle and cohesion of slope rock masses follow negative exponential decay functions. After 20 freeze–thaw cycles, the internal friction angle and cohesion of rock at a 5.27 m depth decreased by 18.36% and 33.92%, respectively. In contrast, rock at a 0.10 m depth showed more severe reductions of 31.81% and 50.14%. (3) Increasing freeze–thaw cycles progressively lower the safety factors of slope benches, with potential slip surfaces displaying reduced average depths and curvature, alongside elevated dip angles. These findings provide critical insights for preventing freeze–thaw−induced landslide hazards in cold−region open−pit mine slopes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Rock Mechanics and Mining Engineering)

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