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A special issue of Applied Sciences (ISSN 2076-3417). This special issue belongs to the section "Environmental Sciences".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (31 March 2021) | Viewed by 39871

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Prof. Dr. Jorge Loredo

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Guest Editor

School of Mining, Energy and Materials Engineering, University of Oviedo, Independencia 13, 33004 Oviedo, Spain
Interests: energy storage; underground energy storage; geothermal; mine water; closed mines; hydrogeology
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Dr. Javier Menéndez

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Guest Editor

Hunaser Energy, Avda. Galicia, 44, 33005 Oviedo, Spain
Interests: compressed air energy storage; biomass and biofuels; pumped-storage hydropower; solar photovoltaic and geothermal uses with mine water
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

In the transient energy context, the increasing penetration of variable renewable energies, such as wind or solar photovoltaic in the electricity mix, requires flexible energy storage systems to balance supply and demand. Large amounts of electricity could be stored using underground space with low environmental impacts. For this purpose, underground pumped-storage hydropower (UPSH), compressed air energy storage (CAES), hydrogen energy storage (HES), underground thermal energy storage (UTES), or gravity energy storage (GES) systems could be developed in disused or new underground structures. This Special Issue will address research on the machinery design, geomechanical analysis of the underground infrastructure, the thermodynamic performance, the geology and hydrogeology, the public acceptance, the environmental impact, the operation modes, the electrical market, the legal regulation, the round trip energy efficiency and the economic feasibility of underground energy storage plants. We would also like to invite authors to address the global potential for expanding underground energy storage systems around the world and to develop specific case studies.

Prof. Dr. Jorge Loredo
Dr. Javier Menéndez
Guest Editors

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Keywords

energy storage
underground pumped storage hydropower
compressed air energy storage
gravity energy storage
hydrogen energy storage
underground thermal energy storage

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Published Papers (12 papers)

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Editorial

Jump to: Research, Other

3 pages, 186 KiB

Open AccessEditorial

Advances in Underground Energy Storage for Renewable Energy Sources

by Javier Menéndez and Jorge Loredo

Appl. Sci. 2021, 11(11), 5142; https://doi.org/10.3390/app11115142 - 1 Jun 2021

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2374

Abstract

The use of fossil fuels (coal, fuel, and natural gas) to generate electricity has been reduced in the European Union during the last few years, involving a significant decrease in greenhouse gas emissions [...] Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Underground Energy Storage for Renewable Energy Sources)

Research

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17 pages, 4707 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Hydrodynamical and Hydrochemical Assessment of Pumped-Storage Hydropower (PSH) Using an Open Pit: The Case of Obourg Chalk Quarry in Belgium

by Angélique Poulain, Estanislao Pujades and Pascal Goderniaux

Appl. Sci. 2021, 11(11), 4913; https://doi.org/10.3390/app11114913 - 27 May 2021

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2720

Abstract

Pumped storage hydropower (PSH) enables the temporary storage of energy, including from intermittent renewable sources, and provides answers to the difficulties related to the mismatch between supply and demand of electrical energy over time. Implementing a PSH station requires two reservoirs at different elevations and with large volumes of water. The idea of using old, flooded open-pit quarries as a lower reservoir has recently emerged. However, quarries cannot be considered as impervious reservoirs, and they are connected to the surrounding aquifers. As a result, PSH activities may entail environmental impacts. The alternation of the pumping–discharge cycles generates rapid and periodic hydraulic head fluctuations in the quarry, which propagate into the surrounding rock media forcing the exchange of water and inducing the aeration of groundwater. This aeration can destabilize the chemical balances between groundwater and minerals in the underground rock media. In this study, two numerical groundwater models based on the chalk quarry of Obourg (Belgium) were developed considering realistic pumping–discharge scenarios. The aim of these models was to investigate the hydrodynamic and hydrochemical impact of PSH activities on water inside the quarry and in the surrounding rock media. Results showed that (1) water exchanges between the quarry and the adjacent rock media have a significant influence on the hydraulic head, (2) the frequency of the pump–discharge scenarios influence the potential environmental impacts, and (3), in the case of chalk formations, the expected impact of PSH on the water chemical composition is relatively limited around the quarry. Results highlight that those hydrogeological and hydrochemical concerns should be assessed when developing a project of a PSH installation using a quarry as a lower reservoir, considering all particularities of the proposed sites. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Underground Energy Storage for Renewable Energy Sources)

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23 pages, 7107 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Salt Cavern Exergy Storage Capacity Potential of UK Massively Bedded Halites, Using Compressed Air Energy Storage (CAES)

by David Evans, Daniel Parkes, Mark Dooner, Paul Williamson, John Williams, Jonathan Busby, Wei He, Jihong Wang and Seamus Garvey

Appl. Sci. 2021, 11(11), 4728; https://doi.org/10.3390/app11114728 - 21 May 2021

Cited by 30 | Viewed by 4622 | Correction

Abstract

The increasing integration of large-scale electricity generation from renewable energy sources in the grid requires support through cheap, reliable, and accessible bulk energy storage technologies, delivering large amounts of electricity both quickly and over extended periods. Compressed air energy storage (CAES) represents such a storage option, with three commercial facilities using salt caverns for storage operational in Germany, the US, and Canada, with CAES now being actively considered in many countries. Massively bedded halite deposits exist in the UK and already host, or are considered for, solution-mined underground gas storage (UGS) caverns. We have assessed those with proven UGS potential for CAES purposes, using a tool developed during the EPSRC-funded IMAGES project, equations for which were validated using operational data from the Huntorf CAES plant. From a calculated total theoretical ‘static’ (one-fill) storage capacity exceeding that of UK electricity demand of ≈300 TWh in 2018, filtering of results suggests a minimum of several tens of TWh exergy storage in salt caverns, which when co-located with renewable energy sources, or connected to the grid for off-peak electricity, offers significant storage contributions to support the UK electricity grid and decarbonisation efforts. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Underground Energy Storage for Renewable Energy Sources)

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12 pages, 3240 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Hydrogen Permeability of Epoxy Composites as Liners in Lined Rock Caverns—Experimental Study

by Dawid Gajda and Marcin Lutyński

Appl. Sci. 2021, 11(9), 3885; https://doi.org/10.3390/app11093885 - 25 Apr 2021

Cited by 14 | Viewed by 4514

Abstract

Energy production from renewable energy sources is not stable and any fluctuations in energy productions need to be eliminated with underground energy storage. Demand of underground gas storage will be increasing, due to the switching to green energy, while the availability of underground storage sites, especially salt caverns suitable for hydrogen storage, is limited. The purpose of this paper is to compare the hydrogen permeability of different materials and select a proper liner material for hydrogen storage in Liner Rock Caverns or post mine workings. A variety of materials, like concrete, polymer concrete, epoxy resin, salt rock, and mudstone, were tested for gas permeability/hydrogen diffusion, using the combined Steady-State Flow/Carrier Gas methods. Results are shown in different units, providing the opportunity to compare the results with literature data. The permeability value of investigated epoxy resin is comparable to the salt rock (after creep process), which makes the epoxy resin a promising sealing liner for hydrogen and potential substitution of stainless-steel in Lined Rock Cavern (LRC) gas storage. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Underground Energy Storage for Renewable Energy Sources)

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26 pages, 13054 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Monitoring Scheme for the Detection of Hydrogen Leakage from a Deep Underground Storage. Part 2: Physico-Chemical Impacts of Hydrogen Injection into a Shallow Chalky Aquifer

by Philippe Gombert, Stéphane Lafortune, Zbigniew Pokryszka, Elodie Lacroix, Philippe de Donato and Nevila Jozja

Appl. Sci. 2021, 11(6), 2686; https://doi.org/10.3390/app11062686 - 17 Mar 2021

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2961

Abstract

This paper presents the results of an experiment to simulate a sudden and brief hydrogen leak from a potential deep geological storage site. A 5 m³ volume of groundwater was extracted, saturated with hydrogen, and then reinjected into the aquifer. Saturating the water with hydrogen caused a decrease in the oxidation-reduction potential, the dissolved gas content (especially O₂ and CO₂), the electrical conductivity, and the concentration of alkaline earth bicarbonate ions and a slight increase in pH. These changes are observed until 20 m downstream of the injection well, while the more distant piezometers (from 30 to 60 m) are not significantly affected. During this experiment, no indicators of the development of chemical or biochemical reactions are observed, because of the rapid transfer of the dissolved hydrogen plume through the aquifer and its significant dilution beyond 10 m downstream of the injection well. Here, hydrogen behaved as a conservative element, reacting very slightly or not at all. However, this experiment demonstrates the existence of direct and indirect impacts of the presence of hydrogen in an aquifer. This experiment also highlights the need to adapt the monitoring of future underground hydrogen storage sites. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Underground Energy Storage for Renewable Energy Sources)

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19 pages, 9674 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Thermodynamic Analysis of Compressed Air Energy Storage (CAES) Reservoirs in Abandoned Mines Using Different Sealing Layers

by Laura Álvarez de Prado, Javier Menéndez, Antonio Bernardo-Sánchez, Mónica Galdo, Jorge Loredo and Jesús Manuel Fernández-Oro

Appl. Sci. 2021, 11(6), 2573; https://doi.org/10.3390/app11062573 - 13 Mar 2021

Cited by 15 | Viewed by 3606

Abstract

Million cubic meters from abandoned mines worldwide could be used as subsurface reservoirs for large scale energy storage systems, such as adiabatic compressed air energy storage (A-CAES). In this paper, analytical and three-dimensional CFD numerical models have been conducted to analyze the thermodynamic performance of the A-CAES reservoirs in abandoned mines during air charging and discharging processes. Unlike other research works, in which the heat transfer coefficient is considered constant during the operation time, in the present investigation a correlation based on both unsteady Reynolds and Rayleigh numbers is employed for the heat transfer coefficient in this type of application. A tunnel with a 35 cm thick concrete lining, 200 m³ of useful volume and typical operating pressures from 5 to 8 MPa were considered. Fiber-reinforced plastic (FRP) and steel were employed as sealing layers in the simulations around the fluid. Finally, the model also considers a 2.5 m thick sandstone rock mass around the concrete lining. The results obtained show significant heat flux between the pressurized air and the sealing layer and between the sealing layer and concrete lining. However, no temperature fluctuation was observed in the rock mass. The air temperature fluctuations are reduced when steel sealing layer is employed. The thermal energy balance through the sealing layer for 30 cycles, considering air mass flow rates of 0.22 kg s⁻¹ (charge) and −0.45 kg s⁻¹ (discharge), reached 1056 and 907 kWh for FRP and steel, respectively. In general, good agreements between analytical and numerical simulations were obtained. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Underground Energy Storage for Renewable Energy Sources)

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21 pages, 2770 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Is the Large-Scale Development of Wind-PV with Hydro-Pumped Storage Economically Feasible in Greece?

by Anna Dianellou, Theofanis Christakopoulos, George Caralis, Vassiliki Kotroni, Konstantinos Lagouvardos and Arthouros Zervos

Appl. Sci. 2021, 11(5), 2368; https://doi.org/10.3390/app11052368 - 7 Mar 2021

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 2349

Abstract

The achievement of the long-term national energy targets in Greece for large-scale integration of wind and solar energy may be facilitated by the development of hydro-pumped storage projects. In light of the above, technical aspects related with the operation of the Greek power system and its ability to absorb renewable energy are analyzed in connection with the role of hydro-pumped storage and relative economic aspects. The aim of this work is to assess the potential contribution of hydro-pumped storage projects and estimate the capacity magnitude order to support large-scale wind and photovoltaic (PV) integration in Greece. For this purpose, scenarios for the Greek power system with focus on Wind and PV development, in conjunction with hydro-pumped storage capacity, are developed, and results for current situation and reference years 2030 and 2050 are presented. For the simulation, among others, high resolution mesoscale wind data for a typical year in the whole Greek territory are used for the steady state simulation of the Greek power system, in order to better estimate the power that could be generated from installed wind turbines, taking into consideration technical characteristics of a typical commercial wind turbine. Results indicate the need of gradual development of hydro-pumped storage in parallel with the large-scale integration of wind and PV capacity into the Greek power system. In addition, the feasibility of the examined scenarios is supported from the low cost of wind and PV generation. In the case of Greece, thanks to the complex morphology and hydraulic conditions of the country, hydro-pumped storage composes an efficient and low-cost storage solution. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Underground Energy Storage for Renewable Energy Sources)

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16 pages, 4094 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

The Impact of Hydrogeological Features on the Performance of Underground Pumped-Storage Hydropower (UPSH)

by Estanislao Pujades, Angelique Poulain, Philippe Orban, Pascal Goderniaux and Alain Dassargues

Appl. Sci. 2021, 11(4), 1760; https://doi.org/10.3390/app11041760 - 17 Feb 2021

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 3561

Abstract

Underground pumped storage hydropower (UPSH) is an attractive opportunity to manage the production of electricity from renewable energy sources in flat regions, which will contribute to the expansion of their use and, thus, to mitigating the emissions of greenhouse gasses (GHGs) in the atmosphere. A logical option to construct future UPSH plants consists of taking advantage of existing underground cavities excavated with mining purposes. However, mines are not waterproofed, and there will be an underground water exchange between the surrounding geological medium and the UPSH plants, which can impact their efficiency and the quality of nearby water bodies. Underground water exchanges depend on hydrogeological features, such as the hydrogeological properties and the groundwater characteristics and behavior. In this paper, we numerically investigated how the hydraulic conductivity (K) of the surrounding underground medium and the elevation of the piezometric head determined the underground water exchanges and their associated consequences. The results indicated that the efficiency and environmental impacts on surface water bodies became worse in transmissive geological media with a high elevation of the piezometric head. However, the expected environmental impacts on the underground medium increased as the piezometric head became deeper. This assessment complements previous ones developed in the same field and contributes to the definition of (1) screening strategies for selecting the best places to construct future UPSH plants and (2) design criteria to improve their efficiency and minimize their impacts. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Underground Energy Storage for Renewable Energy Sources)

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18 pages, 6125 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Monitoring Scheme for the Detection of Hydrogen Leakage from a Deep Underground Storage. Part 1: On-Site Validation of an Experimental Protocol via the Combined Injection of Helium and Tracers into an Aquifer

by Stéphane Lafortune, Philippe Gombert, Zbigniew Pokryszka, Elodie Lacroix, Philippe de Donato and Nevila Jozja

Appl. Sci. 2020, 10(17), 6058; https://doi.org/10.3390/app10176058 - 1 Sep 2020

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 2867

Abstract

Massive underground storage of hydrogen could be a way that excess energy is produced in the future, provided that the risks of leakage of this highly flammable gas are managed. The ROSTOCK-H research project plans to simulate a sudden hydrogen leak into an aquifer and to design suitable monitoring, by injecting dissolved hydrogen in the saturated zone of an experimental site. Prior to this, an injection test of tracers and helium-saturated water was carried out to validate the future protocol related to hydrogen. Helium exhibits a comparable physical behavior but is a non-flammable gas which is preferable for a protocol optimization test. The main questions covered the gas saturation conditions of the water, the injection protocol of 5 m³ of gas saturated water, and the monitoring protocol. Due to the low solubility of both helium and hydrogen, it appears that plume dilution will be more important further than 20 m downstream of the injection well and that monitoring must be done close to the well. In the piezometer located 5 m downstream the injection well, the plume peak is intended to arrive about 1 h after injection with a concentration around 1.5 mg·L⁻¹. Taking these results into account should make it possible to complete the next injection of hydrogen. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Underground Energy Storage for Renewable Energy Sources)

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13 pages, 2760 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Empirical Analysis and Geomechanical Modelling of an Underground Water Reservoir for Hydroelectric Power Plants

by Javier Menéndez, Falko Schmidt, Heinz Konietzky, Antonio Bernardo Sánchez and Jorge Loredo

Appl. Sci. 2020, 10(17), 5853; https://doi.org/10.3390/app10175853 - 24 Aug 2020

Cited by 14 | Viewed by 2716

Abstract

The European Union policy of encouraging renewable energy sources and a sustainable and safe low-carbon economy requires flexible energy storage systems (FESSs), such as pumped-storage hydropower (PSH) systems. Energy storage systems are the key to facilitate a high penetration of the renewable energy sources in the electrical grids. Disused mining structures in closed underground coal mines in NW Spain have been selected as a case study to analyze the construction of underground pumped-storage hydropower (UPSH) plants. Mine water, depth and subsurface space in closured coal mines may be used for the construction of FESSs with reduced environmental impacts. This paper analyzes the stability of a network of tunnels used as a lower water reservoir at 450 m depth in sandstone and shale formations. Empirical methods based on rock mass classification systems are employed to preliminarily design the support systems and to determinate the rock mass properties. In addition, 3D numerical modelling has been conducted in order to verify the stability of the underground excavations. The deformations and thickness of the excavation damage zones (EDZs) around the excavations have been evaluated in the simulations without considering a support system and considering systematic grouted rock bolts and a layer of reinforced shotcrete as support system. The results obtained show that the excavation of the network of tunnels is technically feasible with the support system that has been designed. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Underground Energy Storage for Renewable Energy Sources)

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17 pages, 3241 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Economic Feasibility of Underground Pumped Storage Hydropower Plants Providing Ancillary Services

by Javier Menéndez, Jesús Manuel Fernández-Oro and Jorge Loredo

Appl. Sci. 2020, 10(11), 3947; https://doi.org/10.3390/app10113947 - 6 Jun 2020

Cited by 24 | Viewed by 4612

Abstract

The electricity generated by some renewable energy sources (RESs) is difficult to forecast; therefore, large-scale energy storage systems (ESSs) are required for balancing supply and demand. Unlike conventional pumped storage hydropower (PSH) systems, underground pumped storage hydropower (UPSH) plants are not limited by topography and produce low environmental impacts. In this paper, a deterministic model has been conducted for three UPSH plants in order to evaluate the economic feasibility when considering daily turbine cycle times at full load (DTCs) between 4 and 10 h. In the model, the day-ahead and the ancillary services markets have been compared to maximize the price spread between the electricity generated and consumed. Secondary regulation, deviation management and tertiary regulation services have been analyzed to maximize the income and minimize the cost for purchasing energy. The capital costs of an open-loop UPSH plant have been estimated for the case of using the existing infrastructure and for the case of excavating new tunnels as lower reservoirs. The net present value (NPV), internal rate of return (IRR) and payback period (PB) have been obtained in all scenarios. The results obtained show that the energy generation and the annual generation cycles decrease when the DTC increases from 4 to 10 h, while the NPV and the IRR increase due to investment costs. The investment cost of a 219 MW UPSH plant using the existing infrastructure reaches 366.96 M€, while the NPV, IRR and PB reached 185 M€, 7.10% and 15 years, respectively, participating in the ancillary services markets and considering a DTC of 8 h. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Underground Energy Storage for Renewable Energy Sources)

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3 pages, 1401 KiB

Open AccessCorrection

Correction: Evans et al. Salt Cavern Exergy Storage Capacity Potential of UK Massively Bedded Halites, Using Compressed Air Energy Storage (CAES). Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 4728

by David Evans, Daniel Parkes, Mark Dooner, Paul Williamson, John Williams, Jonathan Busby, Wei He, Jihong Wang and Seamus Garvey

Appl. Sci. 2022, 12(7), 3327; https://doi.org/10.3390/app12073327 - 25 Mar 2022

Viewed by 1344

Abstract

The author wishes to make a change to the mail address of Dr [...] Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Underground Energy Storage for Renewable Energy Sources)

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