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Editor’s Choice Articles

Editor’s Choice articles are based on recommendations by the scientific editors of MDPI journals from around the world. Editors select a small number of articles recently published in the journal that they believe will be particularly interesting to readers, or important in the respective research area. The aim is to provide a snapshot of some of the most exciting work published in the various research areas of the journal.

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12 pages, 2369 KiB  
Article
Thermophysical Characterization of a Layered P2 Type Structure Na0.53MnO2 Cathode Material for Sodium Ion Batteries
by Ijaz Ul Mohsin, Carlos Ziebert, Magnus Rohde and Hans Jürgen Seifert
Batteries 2021, 7(1), 16; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries7010016 - 1 Mar 2021
Cited by 8 | Viewed by 5642
Abstract
Over the last decade, the demand for safer batteries with excellent performance and lower costs has been intensively increasing. The abundantly available precursors and environmental friendliness are generating more and more interest in sodium ion batteries (SIBs), especially because of the lower material [...] Read more.
Over the last decade, the demand for safer batteries with excellent performance and lower costs has been intensively increasing. The abundantly available precursors and environmental friendliness are generating more and more interest in sodium ion batteries (SIBs), especially because of the lower material costs compared to Li-ion batteries. Therefore, significant efforts are being dedicated to investigating new cathode materials for SIBs. Since the thermal characterization of cathode materials is one of the key factors for designing safe batteries, the thermophysical properties of a commercial layered P2 type structure Na0.53MnO2 cathode material in powder form were measured in the temperature range between −20 and 1200 °C by differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), laser flash analysis (LFA), and thermogravimetry (TG). The thermogravimetry (TG) was combined with mass spectrometry (MS) to study the thermal decomposition of the cathode material with respect to the evolved gas analysis (EGA) and was performed from room temperature up to 1200 °C. The specific heat (Cp) and the thermal diffusivity (α) were measured up to 400 °C because beyond this temperature, the cathode material starts to decompose. The thermal conductivity (λ) as a function of temperature was calculated from the thermal diffusivity, the specific heat capacity, and the density. Such thermophysical data are highly relevant and important for thermal simulation studies, thermal management, and the mitigation of thermal runaway. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Electrochemical, Thermal, and Safety Properties of Lithium and Post-Li Materials and Cells II)
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22 pages, 3571 KiB  
Article
Estimate e-Golf Battery State Using Diagnostic Data and a Digital Twin
by Lukas Merkle, Michael Pöthig and Florian Schmid
Batteries 2021, 7(1), 15; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries7010015 - 24 Feb 2021
Cited by 43 | Viewed by 10120
Abstract
Li-ion battery packs are the heart of modern electric vehicles. Due to their perishable nature, it is crucial to supervise them closely. In addition to on-board supervision over safety and range, insights into the battery’s degradation are also becoming increasingly important, not only [...] Read more.
Li-ion battery packs are the heart of modern electric vehicles. Due to their perishable nature, it is crucial to supervise them closely. In addition to on-board supervision over safety and range, insights into the battery’s degradation are also becoming increasingly important, not only for the vehicle manufacturers but also for vehicle users. The concept of digital twins has already emerged on the field of automotive technology, and can also help to digitalize the vehicle’s battery. In this work, we set up a data pipeline and digital battery twin to track the battery state, including State of charge (SOC) and State of Health (SOH). To achieve this goal, we reverse-engineer the diagnostics interface of a 2014 e-Golf to query for UDS messages containing both battery pack and cell-individual data. An OBD logger records the data with edge-processing capability. Pushing this data into the cloud twin system using IoT-technology, we can fit battery models to the data and infer for example, cell individual internal resistance from them. We find that the resistances of the cells differ by a magnitude of two. Furthermore, we propose an architecture for the battery twin in which the twin fleet shares resources like models by encapsulating them in Docker containers run on a cloud stack. By using web technology, we present the analyzed results on a web interface. Full article
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21 pages, 834 KiB  
Article
A Flexible Model for Benchmarking the Energy Usage of Automotive Lithium-Ion Battery Cell Manufacturing
by Asanthi Jinasena, Odne Stokke Burheim and Anders Hammer Strømman
Batteries 2021, 7(1), 14; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries7010014 - 22 Feb 2021
Cited by 38 | Viewed by 11214
Abstract
The increasing use of electric vehicle batteries in the world has a significant impact on both society and the environment. Thus, there is a need for the availability of transparent information on resource allocation. Battery manufacturing process details in this regard are not [...] Read more.
The increasing use of electric vehicle batteries in the world has a significant impact on both society and the environment. Thus, there is a need for the availability of transparent information on resource allocation. Battery manufacturing process details in this regard are not available in academia or the public. The available energy data on manufacturing has a high variation. Furthermore, different process steps have different energy and material demands. A process model can benchmark the energy usage, provide detailed process data, and compare various cell productions which in turn can be used in life-cycle assessment studies to reduce the variation and provide directions for improvements. Therefore, a cell manufacturing model is developed for the calculation of energy and material demands for different battery types, plant capacities, and process steps. The model consists of the main process steps, machines, intermediate products and building service units. Furthermore, the results are validated using literature values. For a case study of a 2 GWh plant that produces prismatic NMC333 cells, the total energy requirement on a theoretical and optimal basis is suggested to be 44.6Whinproduction/Whcellcapacity. This energy consumption in producing batteries is dominated by electrode drying, and dry room. Energy usage for a variety of cell types for a similar plant capacity shows that the standard deviation in the results is low (47.23±13.03Wh/Wh). Full article
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15 pages, 4716 KiB  
Article
Infiltrated and Isostatic Laminated NCM and LTO Electrodes with Plastic Crystal Electrolyte Based on Succinonitrile for Lithium-Ion Solid State Batteries
by Matthias Coeler, Vanessa van Laack, Frederieke Langer, Annegret Potthoff, Sören Höhn, Sebastian Reuber, Katharina Koscheck and Mareike Wolter
Batteries 2021, 7(1), 11; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries7010011 - 3 Feb 2021
Cited by 7 | Viewed by 6073
Abstract
We report a new process technique for electrode manufacturing for all solid-state batteries. Porous electrodes are manufactured by a tape casting process and subsequently infiltrated by a plastic crystal polymer electrolyte (PCPE). With a following isostatic lamination process, the PCPE was further integrated [...] Read more.
We report a new process technique for electrode manufacturing for all solid-state batteries. Porous electrodes are manufactured by a tape casting process and subsequently infiltrated by a plastic crystal polymer electrolyte (PCPE). With a following isostatic lamination process, the PCPE was further integrated deeply into the porous electrode layer, forming a composite electrode. The PCPE comprises the plastic crystal succinonitrile (SN), lithium conductive salt LiTFSI and polyacrylonitrile (PAN) and exhibits suitable thermal, rheological (ƞ = 0.6 Pa s @ 80 °C 1 s−1) and electrochemical properties (σ > 10−4 S/cm @ 45 °C). We detected a lowered porosity of infiltrated and laminated electrodes through Hg porosimetry, showing a reduction from 25.6% to 2.6% (NCM infiltrated to laminated) and 32.9% to 4.0% (LTO infiltrated to laminated). Infiltration of PCPE into the electrodes was further verified by FESEM images and EDS mapping of sulfur content of the conductive salt. Cycling tests of full cells with NCM and LTO electrodes with PCPE separator at 45 °C showed up to 165 mAh/g at 0.03C over 20 cycles, which is about 97% of the total usable LTO capacity with a coulomb efficiency of between 98 and 99%. Cycling tests at 0.1C showed a capacity of ~128 mAh/g after 40 cycles. The C-rate of 0.2C showed a mean capacity of 127 mAh/g. In summary, we could manufacture full cells using a plastic crystal polymer electrolyte suitable for NCM and LTO active material, which is easily to be integrated into porous electrodes and which is being able to be used in future cell concepts like bipolar stacked cells. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Ionic Transportation Bases in All-Solid-State Batteries)
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14 pages, 5108 KiB  
Article
Effects of the Nail Geometry and Humidity on the Nail Penetration of High-Energy Density Lithium Ion Batteries
by Stefan Doose, Wolfgang Haselrieder and Arno Kwade
Batteries 2021, 7(1), 6; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries7010006 - 12 Jan 2021
Cited by 17 | Viewed by 4922
Abstract
Internal short-circuit tests were carried out in a battery safety investigation chamber to determine the behavior of batteries during the nail penetration test. So far, systematic investigations regarding the test setup and its influence are rarely found in the literature. Especially, to improve [...] Read more.
Internal short-circuit tests were carried out in a battery safety investigation chamber to determine the behavior of batteries during the nail penetration test. So far, systematic investigations regarding the test setup and its influence are rarely found in the literature. Especially, to improve the comparability of the multitude of available results, it is essential to understand the effects of the geometric, operating and ambient parameters. In this study commercial lithium ion batteries with a capacity of 5.3 and 3.3 Ah were used to study the influence of the varied parameters on the voltage drop, the development of surface temperatures and of infrared active gas species. We studied both the influence of the geometry of the penetrating nail and concentration of water in the inert atmosphere especially on the quantities of the reaction products under variation of cell capacity. It could be shown that the geometry of the nail, within certain limits, has no influence on the processes of the thermal runaway of high energy density lithium ion batteries (LIBs). However, a change in capacity from 5.3 to 3.3 Ah shows that in particular the gaseous reaction products differ: The standardized gas concentrations show a higher measurable concentration of all gases except CO for the 3.3 Ah LIBs. This circumstance can be explained by the intensity of the reactions due to the different battery capacities: In the 5.3 Ah cells a larger amount of unreacted material is immediately discharged from the reaction center, and by the different available amounts of oxidizing reaction partners. An increase of the water content in the surrounding atmosphere during the thermal runaway leads to a reduction of the measurable gas concentrations of up to 36.01%. In general, all measured concentrations decrease. With increased water content more reaction products from the atmosphere can be directly bound or settle as condensate on surfaces. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Electrochemical, Thermal and Safety Properties of Lithium and Post-Li Materials and Cells)
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11 pages, 2099 KiB  
Article
Design Considerations for Fast Charging Lithium Ion Cells for NMC/MCMB Electrode Pairs
by William Yourey, Yanbao Fu, Ning Li, Vincent Battaglia and Wei Tong
Batteries 2021, 7(1), 4; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries7010004 - 5 Jan 2021
Cited by 8 | Viewed by 5370
Abstract
Lithium ion cells that can be quickly charged are of critical importance for the continued and accelerated penetration of electric vehicles (EV) into the consumer market. Considering this, the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) has set a cell recharge time goal of 10–15 [...] Read more.
Lithium ion cells that can be quickly charged are of critical importance for the continued and accelerated penetration of electric vehicles (EV) into the consumer market. Considering this, the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) has set a cell recharge time goal of 10–15 min. The following study provides an investigation into the effect of cell design, specifically negative to positive matching ratio (1.2:1 vs. 1.7:1) on fast charging performance. By using specific charging procedures based on negative electrode performance, as opposed to the industrial standard constant current constant voltage procedures, we show that the cells with a higher N:P ratio can be charged to ~16% higher capacity in the ten-minute time frame. Cells with a higher N:P ratio also show similar cycle life performance to those with a conventional N:P ratio, despite the fact that these cells experience a much higher irreversible capacity loss, leading to a lower reversible specific capacity. Full article
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26 pages, 6817 KiB  
Article
Mathematical Heat Transfer Modeling and Experimental Validation of Lithium-Ion Battery Considering: Tab and Surface Temperature, Separator, Electrolyte Resistance, Anode-Cathode Irreversible and Reversible Heat
by Anosh Mevawalla, Satyam Panchal, Manh-Kien Tran, Michael Fowler and Roydon Fraser
Batteries 2020, 6(4), 61; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries6040061 - 16 Dec 2020
Cited by 89 | Viewed by 11174
Abstract
The temperature and heat produced by lithium-ion (Li-ion) batteries in electric and hybrid vehicles is an important field of investigation as it determines the power, performance, and cycle life of the battery pack. This paper presented both laboratory data and simulation results at [...] Read more.
The temperature and heat produced by lithium-ion (Li-ion) batteries in electric and hybrid vehicles is an important field of investigation as it determines the power, performance, and cycle life of the battery pack. This paper presented both laboratory data and simulation results at C-rates of 1C, 2C, 3C, and 4C at an ambient temperature of approximately 23 °C. During experiment thermocouples were placed on the surface of the battery. The thermal model assumed constant current discharge and was experimentally validated. It was observed that temperature increased with C-rates at both the surface and the tabs. We note that at 4C the battery temperature increased from 22 °C to 47.40 °C and the tab temperature increased from 22 °C to 52.94 °C. Overall, the simulation results showed that more heat was produced in the cathode than the anode, the primary source of heat was the electrolyte resistance, and the battery temperature was the highest near the tabs and in the internal space of the battery. Simulation of the lithium concentration within the battery showed that the lithium concentration was more uniform in the anode than in the cathode. These results can help the accurate thermal design and thermal management of Li-ion batteries. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Batteries and Electric Vehicles)
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18 pages, 2719 KiB  
Article
Lightweight Polymer-Carbon Composite Current Collector for Lithium-Ion Batteries
by Marco Fritsch, Matthias Coeler, Karina Kunz, Beate Krause, Peter Marcinkowski, Petra Pötschke, Mareike Wolter and Alexander Michaelis
Batteries 2020, 6(4), 60; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries6040060 - 8 Dec 2020
Cited by 15 | Viewed by 7135
Abstract
A hermetic dense polymer-carbon composite-based current collector foil (PCCF) for lithium-ion battery applications was developed and evaluated in comparison to state-of-the-art aluminum (Al) foil collector. Water-processed LiNi0.5Mn1.5O4 (LMNO) cathode and Li4Ti5O12 (LTO) anode [...] Read more.
A hermetic dense polymer-carbon composite-based current collector foil (PCCF) for lithium-ion battery applications was developed and evaluated in comparison to state-of-the-art aluminum (Al) foil collector. Water-processed LiNi0.5Mn1.5O4 (LMNO) cathode and Li4Ti5O12 (LTO) anode coatings with the integration of a thin carbon primer at the interface to the collector were prepared. Despite the fact that the laboratory manufactured PCCF shows a much higher film thickness of 55 µm compared to Al foil of 19 µm, the electrode resistance was measured to be by a factor of 5 lower compared to the Al collector, which was attributed to the low contact resistance between PCCF, carbon primer and electrode microstructure. The PCCF-C-primer collector shows a sufficient voltage stability up to 5 V vs. Li/Li+ and a negligible Li-intercalation loss into the carbon primer. Electrochemical cell tests demonstrate the applicability of the developed PCCF for LMNO and LTO electrodes, with no disadvantage compared to state-of-the-art Al collector. Due to a 50% lower material density, the lightweight and hermetic dense PCCF polymer collector offers the possibility to significantly decrease the mass loading of the collector in battery cells, which can be of special interest for bipolar battery architectures. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Lithium-Ion Batteries: Latest Advances and Prospects)
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16 pages, 3255 KiB  
Article
Optimal Siting and Sizing of Battery Energy Storage Systems for Distribution Network of Distribution System Operators
by Panyawoot Boonluk, Apirat Siritaratiwat, Pradit Fuangfoo and Sirote Khunkitti
Batteries 2020, 6(4), 56; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries6040056 - 19 Nov 2020
Cited by 47 | Viewed by 8161
Abstract
In this work, optimal siting and sizing of a battery energy storage system (BESS) in a distribution network with renewable energy sources (RESs) of distribution network operators (DNO) are presented to reduce the effect of RES fluctuations for power generation reliability and quality. [...] Read more.
In this work, optimal siting and sizing of a battery energy storage system (BESS) in a distribution network with renewable energy sources (RESs) of distribution network operators (DNO) are presented to reduce the effect of RES fluctuations for power generation reliability and quality. The optimal siting and sizing of the BESS are found by minimizing the costs caused by the voltage deviations, power losses, and peak demands in the distribution network for improving the performance of the distribution network. The simulation results of the BESS installation were evaluated in the IEEE 33-bus distribution network. Genetic algorithm (GA) and particle swarm optimization (PSO) were adopted to solve this optimization problem, and the results obtained from these two algorithms were compared. After the BESS installation in the distribution network, the voltage deviations, power losses, and peak demands were reduced when compared to those of the case without BESS installation. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Battery Systems and Energy Storage beyond 2020)
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32 pages, 2211 KiB  
Review
A Review on Temperature-Dependent Electrochemical Properties, Aging, and Performance of Lithium-Ion Cells
by Mohammad Alipour, Carlos Ziebert, Fiorentino Valerio Conte and Riza Kizilel
Batteries 2020, 6(3), 35; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries6030035 - 28 Jun 2020
Cited by 106 | Viewed by 20158
Abstract
Temperature heavily affects the behavior of any energy storage chemistries. In particular, lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) play a significant role in almost all storage application fields, including Electric Vehicles (EVs). Therefore, a full comprehension of the influence of the temperature on the key cell [...] Read more.
Temperature heavily affects the behavior of any energy storage chemistries. In particular, lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) play a significant role in almost all storage application fields, including Electric Vehicles (EVs). Therefore, a full comprehension of the influence of the temperature on the key cell components and their governing equations is mandatory for the effective integration of LIBs into the application. If the battery is exposed to extreme thermal environments or the desired temperature cannot be maintained, the rates of chemical reactions and/or the mobility of the active species may change drastically. The alteration of properties of LIBs with temperature may create at best a performance problem and at worst a safety problem. Despite the presence of many reports on LIBs in the literature, their industrial realization has still been difficult, as the technologies developed in different labs have not been standardized yet. Thus, the field requires a systematic analysis of the effect of temperature on the critical properties of LIBs. In this paper, we report a comprehensive review of the effect of temperature on the properties of LIBs such as performance, cycle life, and safety. In addition, we focus on the alterations in resistances, energy losses, physicochemical properties, and aging mechanism when the temperature of LIBs are not under control. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Electrochemical, Thermal and Safety Properties of Lithium and Post-Li Materials and Cells)
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28 pages, 7873 KiB  
Article
Comprehensive Hazard Analysis of Failing Automotive Lithium-Ion Batteries in Overtemperature Experiments
by Christiane Essl, Andrey W. Golubkov, Eva Gasser, Manfred Nachtnebel, Armin Zankel, Eduard Ewert and Anton Fuchs
Batteries 2020, 6(2), 30; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries6020030 - 18 May 2020
Cited by 59 | Viewed by 12625
Abstract
Lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) are gaining importance in the automotive sector because of the potential of electric vehicles (EVs) to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and air pollution. However, there are serious hazards resulting from failing battery cells leading to exothermic chemical reactions inside the [...] Read more.
Lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) are gaining importance in the automotive sector because of the potential of electric vehicles (EVs) to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and air pollution. However, there are serious hazards resulting from failing battery cells leading to exothermic chemical reactions inside the cell, called thermal runaway (TR). Literature of quantifying the failing behavior of modern automotive high capacity cells is rare and focusing on single hazard categories such as heat generation. Thus, the aim of this study is to quantify several hazard relevant parameters of a failing currently used battery cell extracted from a modern mass-produced EV: the temperature response of the cell, the maximum reached cell surface temperature, the amount of produced vent gas, the gas venting rate, the composition of the produced gases including electrolyte vapor and the size and composition of the produced particles at TR. For this purpose, overtemperature experiments with fresh 41 Ah automotive lithium NMC/LMO—graphite pouch cells at different state-of-charge (SOC) 100%, 30% and 0% are performed. The results are valuable for firefighters, battery pack designers, cell recyclers, cell transportation and all who deal with batteries. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Lithium-Ion Batteries: Latest Advances and Prospects)
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14 pages, 3802 KiB  
Article
SEI Growth Impacts of Lamination, Formation and Cycling in Lithium Ion Batteries
by Martin Frankenberger, Markus Trunk, Stefan Seidlmayer, Alexander Dinter, Johannes Dittloff, Lukas Werner, Roman Gernhäuser, Zsolt Revay, Bastian Märkisch, Ralph Gilles and Karl-Heinz Pettinger
Batteries 2020, 6(2), 21; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries6020021 - 26 Mar 2020
Cited by 22 | Viewed by 12414
Abstract
The accumulation of solid electrolyte interphases (SEI) in graphite anodes related to elevated formation rates (0.1C, 1C and 2C), cycling rates (1C and 2C), and electrode-separator lamination is investigated. As shown previously, the lamination technique is beneficial for the capacity aging in graphite-LiNi [...] Read more.
The accumulation of solid electrolyte interphases (SEI) in graphite anodes related to elevated formation rates (0.1C, 1C and 2C), cycling rates (1C and 2C), and electrode-separator lamination is investigated. As shown previously, the lamination technique is beneficial for the capacity aging in graphite-LiNi1/3Mn1/3Co1/3O2 cells. Here, surface resistance growth phenomena are quantified using electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS). The graphite anodes were extracted from the graphite NMC cells in their fully discharged state and irreversible accumulations of lithium in the SEI are revealed using neutron depth profiling (NDP). In this post-mortem study, NDP reveals uniform lithium accumulations as a function of depth with lithium situated at the surface of the graphite particles thus forming the SEI. The SEI was found to grow logarithmically with cycle number starting with the main formation in the initial cycles. Furthermore, the EIS measurements indicate that benefits from lamination arise from surface resistance growth phenomena aside from SEI growth in superior anode fractions. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Lithium-Ion Batteries Aging Mechanisms)
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16 pages, 3094 KiB  
Article
Inhomogeneous Temperature Distribution Affecting the Cyclic Aging of Li-Ion Cells. Part II: Analysis and Correlation
by Daniel Werner, Sabine Paarmann, Achim Wiebelt and Thomas Wetzel
Batteries 2020, 6(1), 12; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries6010012 - 14 Feb 2020
Cited by 32 | Viewed by 6715
Abstract
Temperature has a significant influence on the behavior of batteries and their lifetime. There are several studies in literature that investigate the aging behavior under electrical load, but are limited to homogeneous, constant temperatures. This article presents an approach to quantifying cyclic aging [...] Read more.
Temperature has a significant influence on the behavior of batteries and their lifetime. There are several studies in literature that investigate the aging behavior under electrical load, but are limited to homogeneous, constant temperatures. This article presents an approach to quantifying cyclic aging of lithium-ion cells that takes into account complex thermal boundary conditions. It not only considers different temperature levels but also spatial and transient temperature gradients that can occur despite-or even due to-the use of thermal management systems. Capacity fade and impedance rise are used as measured quantities for degradation and correlated with the temperature boundary conditions during the aging process. The concept and definition of an equivalent aging temperature (EAT) is introduced to relate the degradation caused by spatial and temporal temperature inhomogeneities to similar degradation caused by a homogeneous steady temperature during electrical cycling. The results show an increased degradation at both lower and higher temperatures, which can be very well described by two superimposed exponential functions. These correlations also apply to cells that are cycled under the influence of spatial temperature gradients, both steady and transient. Only cells that are exposed to transient, but spatially homogeneous temperature conditions show a significantly different aging behavior. The concluding result is a correlation between temperature and aging rate, which is expressed as degradation per equivalent full cycle (EFC). This enables both temperature-dependent modeling of the aging behavior and its prediction. Full article
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26 pages, 5912 KiB  
Review
Degradation and Aging Routes of Ni-Rich Cathode Based Li-Ion Batteries
by Philipp Teichert, Gebrekidan Gebresilassie Eshetu, Hannes Jahnke and Egbert Figgemeier
Batteries 2020, 6(1), 8; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries6010008 - 22 Jan 2020
Cited by 84 | Viewed by 24069
Abstract
Driven by the increasing plea for greener transportation and efficient integration of renewable energy sources, Ni-rich metal layered oxides, namely NMC, Li [Ni1−x−yCoyMnz] O2 (x + y ≤ 0.4), and NCA, Li [...] Read more.
Driven by the increasing plea for greener transportation and efficient integration of renewable energy sources, Ni-rich metal layered oxides, namely NMC, Li [Ni1−x−yCoyMnz] O2 (x + y ≤ 0.4), and NCA, Li [Ni1−x−yCoxAly] O2, cathode materials have garnered huge attention for the development of Next-Generation lithium-ion batteries (LIBs). The impetus behind such huge celebrity includes their higher capacity and cost effectiveness when compared to the-state-of-the-art LiCoO2 (LCO) and other low Ni content NMC versions. However, despite all the beneficial attributes, the large-scale deployment of Ni-rich NMC based LIBs poses a technical challenge due to less stability of the cathode/electrolyte interphase (CEI) and diverse degradation processes that are associated with electrolyte decomposition, transition metal cation dissolution, cation–mixing, oxygen release reaction etc. Here, the potential degradation routes, recent efforts and enabling strategies for mitigating the core challenges of Ni-rich NMC cathode materials are presented and assessed. In the end, the review shed light on the perspectives for the future research directions of Ni-rich cathode materials. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Batteries and Supercapacitors Aging)
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18 pages, 5454 KiB  
Article
Accelerated Aging Characterization of Lithium-ion Cells: Using Sensitivity Analysis to Identify the Stress Factors Relevant to Cyclic Aging
by Tanja Gewald, Adrian Candussio, Leo Wildfeuer, Dirk Lehmkuhl, Alexander Hahn and Markus Lienkamp
Batteries 2020, 6(1), 6; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries6010006 - 20 Jan 2020
Cited by 23 | Viewed by 12604
Abstract
As storage technology in electric vehicles, lithium-ion cells are subject to a continuous aging process during their service life that, in the worst case, can lead to a premature system failure. Battery manufacturers thus have an interest in the aging prediction during the [...] Read more.
As storage technology in electric vehicles, lithium-ion cells are subject to a continuous aging process during their service life that, in the worst case, can lead to a premature system failure. Battery manufacturers thus have an interest in the aging prediction during the early design phase, for which semi-empirical aging models are often used. The progress of aging is dependent on the application-specific load profile, more precisely on the aging-relevant stress factors. Still, a literature review reveals a controversy on the aging-relevant stress factors to use as input parameters for the simulation models. It shows that, at present, a systematic and efficient procedure for stress factor selection is missing, as the aging characteristic is cell-specific. In this study, an accelerated sensitivity analysis as a prior step to aging modeling is proposed, which is transferable and allows to determine the actual aging-relevant stress factors for a specific lithium-ion cell. For the assessment of this accelerated approach, two test series with different acceleration levels and cell types are performed and evaluated. The results show that a certain amount of charge throughput, 100 equivalent full cycles in this case, is necessary to conduct a statistically significant sensitivity analysis. Full article
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26 pages, 6857 KiB  
Article
The Impact of Environmental Factors on the Thermal Characteristic of a Lithium–ion Battery
by Gerd Liebig, Ulf Kirstein, Stefan Geißendörfer, Omio Zahid, Frank Schuldt and Carsten Agert
Batteries 2020, 6(1), 3; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries6010003 - 2 Jan 2020
Cited by 24 | Viewed by 10095
Abstract
To draw reliable conclusions about the thermal characteristic of or a preferential cooling strategy for a lithium–ion battery, the correct set of thermal input parameters and a detailed battery layout is crucial. In our previous work, an electrochemical model for a commercially-available, 40 [...] Read more.
To draw reliable conclusions about the thermal characteristic of or a preferential cooling strategy for a lithium–ion battery, the correct set of thermal input parameters and a detailed battery layout is crucial. In our previous work, an electrochemical model for a commercially-available, 40 Ah prismatic lithium–ion battery was validated under heuristic temperature dependence. In this work the validated electrochemical model is coupled to a spatially resolved, three dimensional (3D), thermal model of the same battery to evaluate the thermal characteristics, i.e., thermal barriers and preferential heat rejection patterns, within common environment layouts. We discuss to which extent the knowledge of the batteries’ interior layout can be constructively used for the design of an exterior battery thermal management. It is found from the study results that: (1) Increasing the current rate without considering an increased heat removal flux at natural convection at higher temperatures will lead to increased model deviations; (2) Centralized fan air-cooling within a climate chamber in a multi cell test arrangement can lead to significantly different thermal characteristics at each battery cell; (3) Increasing the interfacial surface area, at which preferential battery interior and exterior heat rejection match, can significantly lower the temperature rise and inhomogeneity within the electrode stack and increase the batteries’ lifespan. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Thermal Characteristics of Batteries 2019)
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