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Latest Research in Post-COVID (Long COVID): Pathological and Treatment Studies...
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Latest Research in Post-COVID (Long COVID): Pathological and Treatment Studies of Sequelae and Complications—3rd Edition

A special issue of Biomedicines (ISSN 2227-9059). This special issue belongs to the section "Molecular and Translational Medicine".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (30 September 2025) | Viewed by 7875

Special Issue Editor

Prof. Dr. César Fernández-de-las-Peñas

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Department of Physical Therapy, Occupational Therapy, Rehabilitation and Physical Medicine, Universidad Rey Juan Carlos, 28922 Alcorcón, Madrid, Spain
Interests: chronic pain; pain neuroscience education; manual therapy; central nervous system sensitization
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

The SARS-CoV-2 virus led to a worldwide outbreak of the disease. Current knowledge on SARS-CoV-2 acute infection has dramatically increased. However, healthcare systems and professionals are fighting against a “hidden” and underestimated consequence of the virus: the presence of long-lasting symptoms after acute infection. This condition has been called long COVID or post-COVID-19 syndrome. In fact, “long-haulers” is the term used to refer to subjects who have recovered from SARS-COV-2 infection but have developed post-COVID symptoms. Increasing studies have supported the presence of more than 100 potential symptoms after the acute phase of infection. Although long COVID as a term was proposed in July 2020, a potential consensus on the definition was only reached by the WHO in December 2021. However, several gaps are still present in the research regarding the identification, timeframe, mechanisms, and treatment strategies for the management of post-COVID symptoms. We are pleased to invite you to submit to this Special Issue, “Latest Research in Post-COVID (Long COVID): Pathological and Treatment Studies of Sequelae and Complications”.

This Special Issue aims to better understand the mechanisms underlying post-COVID-19 symptoms and post-COVID sequelae (associated with real tissue damage) to improve management of these patients. Identification of groups of long haulers according to mechanisms could lead to better treatment approaches. This Special Issue will focus on all these aspects of post-COVID symptoms and sequelae, a topic of emerging relevance due to the presence of millions of “long-haulers”. This is highly relevant since long COVID is independent of the SARS-CoV-2 variant or the implementation of vaccination programs. At the same time, research on adverse reactions or sequelae of COVID vaccines should also be of concern.  We invite researchers/clinicians to submit original articles and comprehensive reviews covering the identification or management of post-COVID subgroups to this Special Issue.

Prof. Dr. César Fernández-de-las-Peñas
Guest Editor

Manuscript Submission Information

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Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Biomedicines is an international peer-reviewed open access monthly journal published by MDPI.

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Keywords

  • COVID-19
  • long COVID
  • pain
  • function
  • fatigue
  • dyspnoea
  • vaccine

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Published Papers (8 papers)

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Research

14 pages, 732 KB  
Article
The Long-Term Outcomes of Corticosteroid Use in COVID-19 Patients with Cardiovascular Disease: A Propensity-Matched Analysis from the Multi-Center International Prospective Registry (HOPE-2)
by Jorge García-Onrubia, Ravi Vazirani, Gisela Feltes, Rafael Sánchez-Del Hoyo, María C. Viana-Llamas, Sergio Raposeiras-Roubín, Rodolfo Romero, Emilio Alfonso-Rodríguez, Aitor Uribarri, Francesco Santoro, Víctor Becerra-Muñoz, Martino Pepe, Alex F. Castro-Mejía, Jaime Signes-Costa, Adelina Gonzalez, Francisco Marín, Javier Lopez-País, Enrico Cerrato, Olalla Vázquez-Cancela, Carolina Espejo-Paeres, Álvaro López Masjuan, Lazar Velicki, Ibrahim El-Battrawy, Harish Ramakrishna, Antonio Fernandez-Ortiz and Ivan J. Nuñez-Giladd Show full author list remove Hide full author list
Biomedicines 2025, 13(11), 2665; https://doi.org/10.3390/biomedicines13112665 (registering DOI) - 30 Oct 2025
Abstract
Introduction: Corticosteroid therapy has been demonstrated to improve prognosis and reduce mortality in patients with severe Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) infection by attenuating the exaggerated inflammatory response that emerges in the late phase of infection. However, its impact on patients with pre-existing [...] Read more.
Introduction: Corticosteroid therapy has been demonstrated to improve prognosis and reduce mortality in patients with severe Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) infection by attenuating the exaggerated inflammatory response that emerges in the late phase of infection. However, its impact on patients with pre-existing cardiovascular disease, who are at higher risk of complications, has not been specifically studied. The aim of this study is to evaluate the effect of corticosteroid therapy on mortality and long-term COVID-19 symptoms in this high-risk population. Methods: We analyzed the prospective registry HOPE-2. Patients with previous cardiovascular disease were selected, and 18-month all-cause death was defined as the primary endpoint. Long-term COVID-19 symptoms were considered as secondary endpoints. A total of 1188 patients with previous heart disease were included, of which 453 received corticosteroid treatment. Propensity score matching analysis in a 1:1 fashion was performed based on baseline variables that exhibited a p-value < 0.05 in the univariant analysis and outcome variables that defined corticosteroid use, with a final matched population of 796 patients. Results: In patients with pre-existing heart disease, corticosteroid treatment was not associated with differences in 18-month all-cause mortality (p = 0.52). However, a shorter duration of hospitalization (median: 8 days [IQR: 4–14] and 11 days [IQR: 7–18]; p < 0.001) was observed in patients who received corticosteroids. No significant differences in long-term COVID-19 symptoms were observed between the two groups. Conclusions: In patients with pre-existing heart disease, the absence of a clear harmful effect suggests that the positive effects of corticosteroids may be offset by their potential adverse effects which could contribute to the persistence of long COVID symptoms. This finding may reflect a differential response to corticosteroids in this high-risk subgroup, highlighting the need for further studies to clarify the role of this therapy in such patients. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Latest Research in Post-COVID (Long COVID): Pathological and Treatment Studies of Sequelae and Complications—3rd Edition)
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6 pages, 196 KB  
Communication
Can Low Cortisol Predict Long COVID? A Controversial Issue
by Tom C. Quach, Alina Wilson, Oliver Sum-Ping, Sara Lomba, Linda N. Geng, Robert Shafer, Mitchell G. Miglis, Phillip C. Yang, Lauren Grossman, Giorgio Ricciardiello and Hector Bonilla
Biomedicines 2025, 13(11), 2636; https://doi.org/10.3390/biomedicines13112636 - 27 Oct 2025
Viewed by 131
Abstract
Cortisol dysregulation has been proposed as a biomarker of long COVID (LC), but findings remain inconsistent. Prior reports suggested low cortisol levels in LC, yet collection times and study designs varied substantially. To evaluate morning serum cortisol distributions in an independent LC cohort, [...] Read more.
Cortisol dysregulation has been proposed as a biomarker of long COVID (LC), but findings remain inconsistent. Prior reports suggested low cortisol levels in LC, yet collection times and study designs varied substantially. To evaluate morning serum cortisol distributions in an independent LC cohort, accounting for circadian timing and sleep patterns, we performed a retrospective cross-sectional study of consecutive adults seen at the Stanford Long COVID Clinic between 14 February 2022 and 31 July 2024 (IRB #62996). Eligible participants had confirmed SARS-CoV-2 infection, symptoms persisting ≥3 months per NASEM criteria, completion of the Alliance Sleep Questionnaire (ASQ), and a morning serum cortisol measured using the Roche Elecsys® Cortisol II assay. Analyses were restricted to collections between 05:00–10:00, categorized as early morning peak (EMP: 05:00–08:00) or mid-morning (MMP: 08:01–10:00). Cortisol was classified as low (<6.2 μg/dL), normal (6.2–19.4 μg/dL), or elevated (>19.4 μg/dL). Among 86 LC patients (69.8% female; mean age 45.4 ± 12.9 years), the mean serum cortisol level was 15.67 ± 6.76 μg/dL. Overall, 62.8% of patients had cortisol within the reference range, 36.0% had elevated levels, and only 1.2% (n = 1) had a low value. Cortisol distributions were comparable across the EMP and MMP collection windows, with no statistically significant differences observed by sleep alignment. Inflammatory markers, including CRP and D-dimer, were largely within reference ranges across all cortisol strata. Contrary to earlier reports, low morning cortisol was rare in this LC cohort; most values were normal or elevated. Findings underscore the importance of circadian timing when interpreting cortisol in LC and highlight the need for prospective studies with serial measurements to determine biomarker utility. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Latest Research in Post-COVID (Long COVID): Pathological and Treatment Studies of Sequelae and Complications—3rd Edition)
10 pages, 1451 KB  
Article
The Effect of Neurorehabilitation of the Cognitive Symptoms of Long COVID Evaluated with Neuropsi Atención y Memoria-III and BANFE-III
by Ana Lilia Dotor-Llerena, Samuel Reyes-Long, Leilani Najera-García, Sandra Hernández-Corral, Elena Arechaga-Ocampo, Karina Avendaño-Ortiz, David Trejo-Martínez, Humberto Rosell-Becerril, Jose Luis Cortes-Altamirano and Alfonso Alfaro-Rodríguez
Biomedicines 2025, 13(9), 2267; https://doi.org/10.3390/biomedicines13092267 - 15 Sep 2025
Viewed by 572
Abstract
Background: The long-haul symptoms of COVID-19 have not been properly attended, especially those of the central nervous system. Attention, memory and executive functioning are the three main cognitive symptoms reported for long COVID patients. To this day, neurorehabilitation therapy to alleviate these [...] Read more.
Background: The long-haul symptoms of COVID-19 have not been properly attended, especially those of the central nervous system. Attention, memory and executive functioning are the three main cognitive symptoms reported for long COVID patients. To this day, neurorehabilitation therapy to alleviate these symptoms has not been proposed. Objectives: The current study aims to evaluate the effect of a neurorehabilitation intervention on the three most prevalent symptoms reported for long COVID in Mexican patients: memory, attention and executive functioning. Methods: Subjects were recruited at Instituto Nacional de Rehabilitación Luis Guillermo Ibarra Ibarra and underwent a novel neurorehabilitation intervention for 6 months. Baseline measurements were taken using validated instruments (Neuropsi, BANFE and CCQ) before the intervention and after it. Results: A significant decrease in the normalized score of the Memory component of the Neuropsi Atención y Memoria III test was found after the intervention, along with a decrease in two components of the BANFE-III test. Conclusions: In the current study, a successful neuropsychology intervention for the main cognitive symptoms of long COVID in a Mexican population reduced subjective self-perceived complaints and objectively measured cognitive symptoms. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Latest Research in Post-COVID (Long COVID): Pathological and Treatment Studies of Sequelae and Complications—3rd Edition)
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14 pages, 2212 KB  
Article
Long COVID and Its Impacts: A Case–Control Study in Brazil
by Cristina M. Ruas, Maria Laura Silva, Ana L. G. F. Figueiredo, Amanda P. de Alencar, Samuel de S. Melo, Geovani F. de Castro, Natália V. Carobin, Melina A. Cordeiro, Janete F. R. Aguirre, Amanda F. M. de Oliveira and Adriano de P. Sabino
Biomedicines 2025, 13(7), 1615; https://doi.org/10.3390/biomedicines13071615 - 1 Jul 2025
Viewed by 922
Abstract
Introduction: Long COVID, or post-COVID-19 syndrome, refers to a set of persistent symptoms following SARS-CoV-2 infection without another identifiable cause. Studies indicate that symptoms can last for up to two years and affect multiple body systems. Objective: The objective of this study is [...] Read more.
Introduction: Long COVID, or post-COVID-19 syndrome, refers to a set of persistent symptoms following SARS-CoV-2 infection without another identifiable cause. Studies indicate that symptoms can last for up to two years and affect multiple body systems. Objective: The objective of this study is to compare symptom prevalence between infected individuals pre and post-COVID-19 and non-infected individuals in a population from Southeastern Brazil. Materials and Methods: A case–control study was conducted with participants from the MonitoraCovid program in a university in Brazil. The study included adults who responded to a questionnaire about long COVID symptoms. Data were collected virtually between October 2023 and May 2024. Results: Of the 2886 individuals eligible for analysis, 75.5% reported having been positive for COVID-19. Most participants were vaccinated, with 82.99% receiving two doses. In the pre and post comparison, individuals who had COVID-19 were more likely to report increased symptoms after infection, with 95.5% of assessed conditions worsening, particularly cognitive and respiratory issues. A comparison between those who had and had not been infected with COVID-19 showed that only 6.67% of symptoms were more prevalent in the infected group. The most significant post-COVID-19 symptoms included memory problems, fatigue, and shortness of breath, though some conditions, such as anxiety and sleep disturbances, were less common among those who had COVID-19. Conclusions: The findings reinforce that long COVID significantly impacts cognitive health, highlighting the importance of monitoring previously infected individuals. The study also emphasizes the need for further research in Global South contexts to better understand the long-term implications of COVID-19. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Latest Research in Post-COVID (Long COVID): Pathological and Treatment Studies of Sequelae and Complications—3rd Edition)
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11 pages, 231 KB  
Article
Autonomic Dysfunction and Low Cardio-Respiratory Fitness in Long-Term Post-COVID-19 Syndrome
by Radostina Cherneva, Zheyna Cherneva, Vania Youroukova, Tanya Kadiyska, Dinko Valev, Ebru Hayrula-Manaf and Vanyo Mitev
Biomedicines 2025, 13(5), 1138; https://doi.org/10.3390/biomedicines13051138 - 8 May 2025
Viewed by 2034
Abstract
Purpose: Post-COVID-19 syndrome (PCS) is characterized by low cardio-respiratory fitness (CRF). Recent research focuses on the role of autonomic nervous system dysfunction (AD) as a potential contributor to the diminished exercise performance. The aim is to determine the prevalence of AD—chronotropic insufficiency (CI) [...] Read more.
Purpose: Post-COVID-19 syndrome (PCS) is characterized by low cardio-respiratory fitness (CRF). Recent research focuses on the role of autonomic nervous system dysfunction (AD) as a potential contributor to the diminished exercise performance. The aim is to determine the prevalence of AD—chronotropic insufficiency (CI) and abnormal heart rate recovery (HRR) in long-term PCS subjects and to analyse their association with exercise capacity. Patients and Methods: A total of 192 subjects with a history of SARS-CoV-2 infection were included. Chronic Fatigue Syndrome Questionnaire (CFSQ) was applied, and two symptomatic and asymptomatic emerged. Forty-seven had post-COVID complaints, persisting up to thirty months post-acute episode. CI and HRR were determined during the cardio-pulmonary exercise test (CPET). Results: Symptomatic subjects were divided into mild (20) and moderate-severe (27), depending on the CFSQ score; forty-eight PCS subjects without complaints served as a control group. Subjects with moderate-severe PCS showed lower peak VO2 (24.13 ± 6.1 mL/min/kg vs. 26.73 ± 5.9 mL/min/kg, vs. 27.01 ± 6.3 mL/min/kg), as compared to the mild/asymptomatic subjects. Diminished physical activity was established in 10 (37%) of the moderate-severe, 7 (35%) of the mildly symptomatic and 14 (29%) of the asymptomatic groups. The occurrence of AD in the mild/moderate-severe and control groups were, respectively, CI 35% vs. 81.5% vs. 12.5%. Abnormal HRR was, respectively, 20% vs. 33% vs. 8%. None of the subjects had depleted breathing reserve, dynamic hyperinflation, exercise bronchospasm or desaturation. Neither CI nor abnormal HRR correlated to peak O2. Conclusions: AD is present among long-term PCS subjects and may limit the cardio-respiratory response to exercise but is not independently associated with it. Assuming the multiorgan ANS innervation, it is highly probable that AD has diverse pathological pathways in the various PCS phenotypes and contributes differently by cerebral, cardiovascular, respiratory, peripheral or mixed pathways to the diminished neuro-cognitive and physical performance. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Latest Research in Post-COVID (Long COVID): Pathological and Treatment Studies of Sequelae and Complications—3rd Edition)
11 pages, 240 KB  
Article
Cardio-Respiratory Fitness and Fatigue in Post-COVID-19 Syndrome—A Three-Year Update
by Radostina Cherneva, Zheyna Cherneva, Vania Youroukova, Tanya Kadiyska, Dinko Valev, Ebru Myuyun Hayrula-Manaf and Vanyo Mitev
Biomedicines 2025, 13(5), 1097; https://doi.org/10.3390/biomedicines13051097 - 30 Apr 2025
Viewed by 1102
Abstract
Background: Post-COVID-19 syndrome (PCS) is defined as the persistence of symptoms 3 months after acute SARS-CoV-2 infection. The long-term prevalence and clinical progression of PCS has not been established. Our aim was to investigate the symptoms in PCS patients, explore the degree of [...] Read more.
Background: Post-COVID-19 syndrome (PCS) is defined as the persistence of symptoms 3 months after acute SARS-CoV-2 infection. The long-term prevalence and clinical progression of PCS has not been established. Our aim was to investigate the symptoms in PCS patients, explore the degree of physical activity, according to the fatigue severity score, and analyze its association with basic cardio-pulmonary exercise testing (CPET) parameters. Methods: A total of 192 subjects with history of SARSCoV-2 infection were included. They filled in the Chronic Fatigue Syndrome Questionnaire (CFSQ) and were divided into symptomatic and asymptomatic groups. Forty-seven had persistent post-COVID complaints—reduced physical capacity, fatigue, dyspnea, sleep disturbances, muscle pain. CPET was performed and the pathophysiological parameters in the different fatigue severity groups were compared. Results: Subjects with persistent long-term PCS were divided into two groups—mild (20) and moderate–severe (27), depending on the CFSQ score; forty-eight PCS subjects without complaints served as a control group. The average period between the acute illness and the study was 1028 ± 214 days. Subjects with moderate–severe PCS had more symptoms during CPET (73.6% vs. 24.8% vs. 17.4%), as compared to mild/asymptomatic. The rate of perceived effort was subjective and did not correspond to the workload, heart, or breathing rate in the symptomatic group. These subjects were unable to reach the anaerobic threshold, compared to mild/asymptomatic subjects (51.8% vs. 25%, vs. 12.5%). Patients with moderate–severe PCS showed lower peak VO2 (24.13 ± 6.1 mL/min/kg vs. 26.73 ± 5.9 mL/min/kg, vs. 27.01 ± 6.3 mL/min/kg), as compared to mild/asymptomatic subjects. Conclusions: Long-term PCS is still present in up to 24% of the general population, more than thirty months after the acute episode. It is characterized by increased perception of symptom burden and diminished aerobic metabolism. A third of the long-term PCS exhibit lower cardio-respiratory fitness, independently from the severity of the symptoms. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Latest Research in Post-COVID (Long COVID): Pathological and Treatment Studies of Sequelae and Complications—3rd Edition)
16 pages, 1697 KB  
Article
A Machine Learning Model for Predicting Intensive Care Unit Admission in Inpatients with COVID-19 Using Clinical Data and Laboratory Biomarkers
by Alfonso Heriberto Hernández-Monsalves, Pablo Letelier, Camilo Morales, Eduardo Rojas, Mauricio Alejandro Saez, Nicolás Coña, Javiera Díaz, Andrés San Martín, Paola Garcés, Jesús Espinal-Enriquez and Neftalí Guzmán
Biomedicines 2025, 13(5), 1025; https://doi.org/10.3390/biomedicines13051025 - 24 Apr 2025
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1022
Abstract
Background: Artificial intelligence tools can help improve the clinical management of patients with severe COVID-19. The aim of this study was to validate a machine learning model to predict admission to the Intensive Care Unit (ICU) in individuals with COVID-19. Methods: [...] Read more.
Background: Artificial intelligence tools can help improve the clinical management of patients with severe COVID-19. The aim of this study was to validate a machine learning model to predict admission to the Intensive Care Unit (ICU) in individuals with COVID-19. Methods: A total of 201 hospitalized patients with COVID-19 were included. Sociodemographic and clinical data as well as laboratory biomarker results were obtained from medical records and the clinical laboratory information system. Three machine learning models were generated, trained, and internally validated: logistic regression (LR), random forest (RF), and extreme gradient boosting (XGBoost). The models were evaluated for sensitivity (Sn), specificity (Sp), area under the curve (AUC), precision (P), SHapley Additive exPlanation (SHAP) values, and the clinical utility of predictive models using decision curve analysis (DCA). Results: The predictive model included the following variables: type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM), obesity, absolute neutrophil and basophil counts, the neutrophil-to-lymphocyte ratio (NLR), and D-dimer levels on the day of hospital admission. LR showed an Sn of 0.67, Sp of 0.65, AUC of 0.74, and P of 0.66. RF achieved an Sn of 0.87, Sp of 0.83, AUC of 0.96, and P of 0.85. XGBoost demonstrated an Sn of 0.87, Sp of 0.85, AUC of 0.95, and P of 0.86. Conclusions: Among the evaluated models, XGBoost showed robust predictive performance (Sn = 0.87, Sp = 0.85, AUC = 0.95, P = 0.86) and a favorable net clinical benefit in the decision curve analysis, confirming its suitability for predicting ICU admission in COVID-19 and aiding clinical decision-making. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Latest Research in Post-COVID (Long COVID): Pathological and Treatment Studies of Sequelae and Complications—3rd Edition)
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24 pages, 333 KB  
Article
Long COVID and Associated Factors Among Chinese Residents Aged 16 Years and Older in Canada: A Cross-Sectional Online Study
by Matin Shariati, Kieran Luke Gill, Mark Peddle, Ying Cao, Fangli Xie, Xiao Han, Nan Lei, Rachel Prowse, Desai Shan, Lisa Fang, Vita Huang, Arianna Ding and Peizhong (Peter) Wang
Biomedicines 2025, 13(4), 953; https://doi.org/10.3390/biomedicines13040953 - 13 Apr 2025
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1177
Abstract
As the COVID-19 pandemic evolved, long COVID emerged as a significant threat to public health, characterized by one or more persistent symptoms impacting organ systems beyond 12 weeks of infection. Informative research has been derived from assessments of long COVID among the Chinese [...] Read more.
As the COVID-19 pandemic evolved, long COVID emerged as a significant threat to public health, characterized by one or more persistent symptoms impacting organ systems beyond 12 weeks of infection. Informative research has been derived from assessments of long COVID among the Chinese populace. However, none of these studies considered the COVID-19 experience of Chinese residents in Canada. Objectives: We aimed to fill this literature gap by delineating the long COVID experience, prevalence, and associated factors among a sample of Chinese residing in Canada during the pandemic. Methods: The present study employed a cross-sectional online survey questionnaire distributed to a sample of Canadian Chinese using a convenience sampling procedure from 22 December 2022 to 15 February 2023. Respondents were probed for sociodemographic background and health-, COVID-, and vaccine-related characteristics. Logistic LASSO regression was used for model building, and multivariate logistic regression was used to identify factors associated with developing long COVID. Results: Among 491 eligible participants, 63 (12.83%) reported experiencing long COVID with a mean duration of 5.31 (95% CI: 4.06–6.57) months and major symptoms including difficulty concentrating (21.67%), pain/discomfort (15.00%), as well as anxiety/depression (8.33%). Our final model identified significant associations between long COVID and two or more COVID-19 infections (OR = 23.725, 95% CI: 5.098–110.398, p < 0.0001), very severe/severe symptoms (OR = 3.177, 95% CI: 1.160–8.702, p = 0.0246), over-the-counter medicine (OR = 2.473, 95% CI: 1.035–5.909, p = 0.0416), and traditional Chinese medicine (OR = 8.259, 95% CI: 3.016–22.620, p < 0.0001). Further, we identified a significant protective effect of very good/good health status (OR = 0.247, 95% CI: 0.112–0.544, p = 0.0005). Conclusions: Long COVID effected a notable proportion of Canadian Chinese for a prolonged period during the COVID-19 pandemic. Our findings underscore the importance of preexisting health status and reinfection prevention when managing long COVID. Moreover, our work indicates an association between using over-the-counter medicine or traditional Chinese medicine and long COVID experience among Canadian Chinese. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Latest Research in Post-COVID (Long COVID): Pathological and Treatment Studies of Sequelae and Complications—3rd Edition)
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