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Earthen Architecture: Challenges and Opportunities for the 21st Century
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Earthen Architecture: Challenges and Opportunities for the 21st Century

A special issue of Buildings (ISSN 2075-5309). This special issue belongs to the section "Building Materials, and Repair & Renovation".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (15 October 2024) | Viewed by 13725

Special Issue Editors

Prof. Dr. Mariana Correia

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
CIAUD, Research Centre for Architecture, Urbanism and Design, Lisbon University/Portucalense University, Porto, Portugal
Interests: world heritage; earthen architecture; vernacular heritage; cultural heritage; conservation; sustainable architecture; climate change; community engagement; scientific research; education; heritage protection and training
Dr. Telma Ribeiro

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
CIAUD, Research Centre for Architecture, Urbanism and Design, Lisbon University/Portucalense University, Porto, Portugal
Interests: conservation; restoration; heritage; earthen architecture; sustainable materials

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Earth has been used as a construction material for millennia, being one of the most versatile, resourceful, ecological, sustainable and widespread building materials around the world. At present, it is estimated that 15 to 17% of the world's population still live in earthen dwellings. However, this number is rapidly decreasing, due to the disappearance of earthen heritage in the different continents.

In recent decades, earthen heritage has been challenged due to climate change, natural catastrophes, man-made disasters, the degradation of the environment caused by man-made activities, a lack of heritage protection, and the pressures of modern living in a globalised world. Also due to a lack of knowledge, in several countries, earthen heritage has been exposed to incorrect interventions and even to gentrification. This is why this heritage is seriously threatened and urgently needs to be protected.

In the past, earthen heritage has greatly contributed to intelligent adaptations to context and environment, and to the exceptional survival of traditional living in diverse cultural regions around the world. Due to economic, energetic and social crises, new opportunities and interest have risen, with earthen architecture and construction contributing to reducing the building footprint, to a healthier and greener society, and to a more sustainable way of life.

With this new paradigm, questions arise regarding the need for earthen heritage to survive, the need to adapt to a changing world, and to enhance the opportunity for new earthen design. Therefore, some questions arise:  What are the chances for earthen architecture to survive in the 21st century? Is it possible to innovate without losing our ancestors’ legacies? Does earthen architecture have a place in the 21st century? Further studies are needed to improve earthen material, preserve earthen heritage, confront contemporary challenges, and rethink cities to become more sustainable societies.

This Special Issue intends to enhance the relevancy and value that earthen heritage has in this changing world, but also the potential that earthen architecture and construction can have for a more sustainable society and greener future.

Potential topics include, but are not limited to:

  • Conservation of earthen heritage;
  • Heritage at risk and solutions;
  • Vulnerability, resilience and preparedness;
  • Community engagement;
  • Response for emergency situations;
  • Ecological and sustainable architecture and construction;
  • Material and building life cycle;
  • Advances in research;
  • Education and dissemination;
  • Adaptation to climate change;
  • Conservation and reuse of rural heritage;
  • Technology as a source for protection and preservation;
  • The value of earthen architecture and heritage in the 21st century.

Prof. Dr. Mariana Correia
Dr. Telma Ribeiro
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Buildings is an international peer-reviewed open access semimonthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2600 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • earthen architecture and construction
  • earthen conservation
  • sustainable development
  • ecological construction
  • climate change adaptation
  • earthen architecture in the 21st century
  • challenges and opportunities

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Published Papers (8 papers)

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Research

39 pages, 14159 KiB  
Article
Preventive Conservation of Vernacular Adobe Architecture at Seismic Risk: The Case Study of a World Heritage Historical City
by Neda Haji Sadeghi, Hamed Azizi-Bondarabadi and Mariana Correia
Buildings 2025, 15(1), 134; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15010134 - 4 Jan 2025
Viewed by 1396
Abstract
Heritage is strengthened through proactive actions, known as preventive conservation, that are considered before earthquakes, rather than reactive actions addressed when the emergency situation occurs. Considering that there are several regions around the world with very active seismicity, conservation interventions should guarantee human [...] Read more.
Heritage is strengthened through proactive actions, known as preventive conservation, that are considered before earthquakes, rather than reactive actions addressed when the emergency situation occurs. Considering that there are several regions around the world with very active seismicity, conservation interventions should guarantee human safety and the improvement of the inhabitant’s living conditions while keeping alive the earthen fabric and adobe buildings, thus preserving the lives of the residents but also preserving cultural heritage in the face of earthquakes. The main aim of this paper is to define a comprehensive conservation procedure addressing the preventive conservation of vernacular adobe vaulted houses in Yazd, an Iranian World Heritage property, since 2017. The fundamental phases of this procedure, which this paper’s structure is based on, include introducing the case study and addressing the conservation objectives, the assessment of significance and value, the seismic criteria, the conservation strategies, seismic safety assessment, and decision-making on interventions. The comprehensive preventive conservation procedure presented in this paper was determined by relevant conservation criteria, which contributed to an adequate seismic-retrofitted intervention design. This conservation approach requires evaluation of the seismic performance and the buildings’ safety, through which the decision regarding intervention could be made. Accordingly, this research also dealt with the seismic safety assessment of an adobe building through numerical research work performed using the software HiStrA Ver.2022.1.6. Based on the numerical results, decisions on the need and on the extent of intervention techniques were addressed. In addition, a comparative study was performed on different seismic strengthening techniques available in the literature to define fundamental conservation criteria. In this way, there are more chances for human lives to be preserved if an earthquake occurs. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Earthen Architecture: Challenges and Opportunities for the 21st Century)
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20 pages, 30224 KiB  
Article
Practice and Reflection on Rammed Earth Architecture: The Case Study of Tiles Hill–Xiangshan Campus Reception Centre in China
by Lichao Chen, Zhiyu Lan, Chaochao Wei, Dan Ouyang, Boren Shi, Peiyin Chen, Mingzhe Wang and Tianyi Xie
Buildings 2024, 14(12), 4034; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings14124034 - 19 Dec 2024
Viewed by 1317
Abstract
This article documents the rammed earth construction practices undertaken at the “Tiles Hill–Xiangshan Campus Reception Centre” project. Traditional rammed earth craftsmanship is a sustainable construction method, with its core rooted in the precise material ratios and building techniques. This project aimed to explore [...] Read more.
This article documents the rammed earth construction practices undertaken at the “Tiles Hill–Xiangshan Campus Reception Centre” project. Traditional rammed earth craftsmanship is a sustainable construction method, with its core rooted in the precise material ratios and building techniques. This project aimed to explore the revival of this nearly forgotten vernacular construction method by integrating modern building technologies, all while adhering to the principle of avoiding any stabilizer additives. The project utilized a total of 2200 cubic meters of rammed earth to construct 16 walls, predominantly oriented north-south, with heights ranging from 3.6 m to 9.6 m and a thickness of 0.6 m. Before the formal commencement of the project, the team conducted experiments in the laboratory, constructing test walls to determine the optimal template fabrication and installation system compatible with modern rammed earth techniques. During the construction process, the team refined the rammed earth techniques, addressing challenges such as wall tilting, horizontal cracking caused by material settlement, and the flexible connection between the earthen walls and the primary structural framework through rational structural node design. The walls also passed compressive strength tests. Furthermore, advancements in the construction process allowed for the recycling and reuse of excavated soil. The article emphasizes that the sustainability of rammed earth techniques extends beyond material reuse to encompass the material’s inherent environmental friendliness and nondestructive nature. It argues that, provided there is a thorough understanding of the material properties of soil and reasonable structural and node design, coupled with the addition of necessary structural measures, it is entirely feasible to achieve ecological sustainability in rammed earth construction without the use of stabilizing additives. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Earthen Architecture: Challenges and Opportunities for the 21st Century)
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31 pages, 24130 KiB  
Article
Assessment of Architectural Typologies and Comparative Analysis of Defensive Rammed Earth Dwellings in the Fujian Region, China
by Xiuhong Lin, Yukun Zhang, Yilin Wu and Yingqian Yang
Buildings 2024, 14(11), 3652; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings14113652 - 17 Nov 2024
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1413
Abstract
Tulou, Tubao, and Zhailu all belong to the same vernacular architectural defensive rammed earth dwellings in Fujian; however, because of the similarity of their earthen defensive functions and fortress architectural systems, they are easily confused by scholars and there is still a gap [...] Read more.
Tulou, Tubao, and Zhailu all belong to the same vernacular architectural defensive rammed earth dwellings in Fujian; however, because of the similarity of their earthen defensive functions and fortress architectural systems, they are easily confused by scholars and there is still a gap in distinguishing the in-depth differences between the three. For the first time, this article develops a proper architectural typology with a comparative analysis of five aspects (origin and prototype, plan and type, building function and settlement typology, structure type and construction technology, and ethical concept and settlement model) to distinguish their architectural features. We find that they have different architectural prototypes and plan types. Tubao is a defensive dwelling with a residential function, Tulou is a defensive dwelling with a residential function, and Zhailu is a dwelling that combines living and defense. They have six different structural types. Although Tulou has the simplest structure and the thinnest rammed earth wall, its construction technology is the best. Tubao and Zhailu have more clearly defined architectural levels than Tulou, and Tubao’s hierarchy is the most significant. Therefore, we prove that despite their similarities, they are different types of buildings. This study helps to provide a methodological guide for identifying other, similar buildings and serves as a manual for the restoration and sustainable development of defensive rammed earth dwelling. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Earthen Architecture: Challenges and Opportunities for the 21st Century)
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29 pages, 12088 KiB  
Article
The Changing Roles of the Building Guild in Construction, Maintenance, and Conservation of Earth Buildings: A Case Study
by Theophilus A. Shittu
Buildings 2024, 14(11), 3523; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings14113523 - 4 Nov 2024
Viewed by 1144
Abstract
A guild is an association of artisans or merchants that oversee their craft or trade within a particular territory. In many cultures, building guilds have played a major role in the realisation and maintenance of earth buildings, as well as in the standardisation [...] Read more.
A guild is an association of artisans or merchants that oversee their craft or trade within a particular territory. In many cultures, building guilds have played a major role in the realisation and maintenance of earth buildings, as well as in the standardisation and dissemination of skills in the building trade. Zaria, in northern Nigeria, is one such traditional settlement where an earth building guild (magina) once played these key roles. Although the guild still exists and traditional titles are still bestowed to members of the guild, its role has changed significantly. Causes for this change are multifaceted but related, as identified during the fieldwork. The aim of this article is to present findings on the changing roles of the earth building guild (magina) in Zaria and how this change is affecting both the practice of earthen architecture and conservation of earth buildings in the city. This study began in 2021 whilst working on a conservation of earth building in Zaria, which involved the engagement of traditional builders (magina) from Zaria, led by Katukan Magina (deputy chief builder) and a member of the earth building guild from Djenne, Mali (Boubacar Kouroumanse). A deeper interest in the Zaria building guild ensued, which led to the further research presented in this article. The review of the existing literature provided a historical background to the Zaria building guild (magina). A comparative analysis of the literature and data generated from interviews and condition surveys were use for the identification of the changes that occur over time. Similarly, a proposal for positive change within the building guild was proposed using an example of a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Earthen Architecture: Challenges and Opportunities for the 21st Century)
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15 pages, 12314 KiB  
Article
Low-Cost Photogrammetry for Detailed Documentation and Condition Assessment of Earthen Architectural Heritage: The Ex-Hotel Oasis Rouge in Timimoun as a Case Study
by Haroune Ben Charif, Ornella Zerlenga and Rosina Iaderosa
Buildings 2024, 14(10), 3292; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings14103292 - 17 Oct 2024
Viewed by 1131
Abstract
Earthen architecture holds deep historical, cultural, and ecological value, forming an essential component of our global cultural heritage. However, these structures face numerous threats, including climate change, socio-economic shifts, and, in many cases, neglection, which accelerate their deterioration. This study introduces a photogrammetry-based [...] Read more.
Earthen architecture holds deep historical, cultural, and ecological value, forming an essential component of our global cultural heritage. However, these structures face numerous threats, including climate change, socio-economic shifts, and, in many cases, neglection, which accelerate their deterioration. This study introduces a photogrammetry-based methodology adapted for the digital documentation and preservation of earthen architecture within the context of developing countries. We focus on the Ex-Hotel Oasis Rouge in Timimoun, an iconic earthen building in southwestern Algeria and the current headquarters of CAPTERRE (Algerian Centre for Earthen Built Cultural Heritage). This paper details our approach to using photogrammetry to capture both the interior and exterior of the building, produce detailed orthophotos for archiving the unique earthen bas-reliefs, and conduct a condition assessment. Our findings demonstrate the effectiveness of photogrammetry as a cost-effective tool for heritage documentation, highlighting its potential to assist in the ongoing preservation and informed restoration of earthen architecture. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Earthen Architecture: Challenges and Opportunities for the 21st Century)
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19 pages, 8141 KiB  
Article
The Challenges of Earthen Architecture from a Conservation Perspective: St Bartholomew Anglican Church, Wusasa, Nigeria
by Theophilus A. Shittu and Ishanlosen Odiaua
Buildings 2024, 14(10), 3117; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings14103117 - 28 Sep 2024
Viewed by 1159
Abstract
This article is a critical analysis of the conservation of a historic earth building: the Saint Bartholomew’s Church in Nigeria. It presents the conservation actions carried out through the application of conservation principles adapted to local context and contributes to building knowledge regarding [...] Read more.
This article is a critical analysis of the conservation of a historic earth building: the Saint Bartholomew’s Church in Nigeria. It presents the conservation actions carried out through the application of conservation principles adapted to local context and contributes to building knowledge regarding building conservation in Africa. The conservation actions consisted of diagnostics, technical interventions and developing guidance for future maintenance of the building. The conservation was carried out between August 2021 and April 2023. A dualistic approach that combines local resources and internationally acceptable conservation practices was employed in the conservation of the church. This approach ensured that the appropriate interventions were carried out on the church building fabric simultaneously with training and knowledge exchange between experts from Nigeria and the UNESCO World Heritage site in Djenne, Bamako, Mali. This article highlights the challenges of conserving earthen architectural conservation in the 21st century and how these challenges can be mitigated through repair and documentation. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Earthen Architecture: Challenges and Opportunities for the 21st Century)
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26 pages, 7779 KiB  
Article
Architectural Features and Soil Properties of Traditional Rammed Earth Houses: Eastern Croatia Case Study
by Ivana Brkanić Mihić, Ivan Kraus, Jelena Kaluđer and Ana Perić Fekete
Buildings 2024, 14(7), 2049; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings14072049 - 4 Jul 2024
Viewed by 1606
Abstract
Rammed earth buildings constitute a large part of the housing stock in rural areas. Although these houses are recognized as a cultural heritage, detailed analyses of their architectural features, geometric parameters crucial for structural stability, and soil properties used for their construction have [...] Read more.
Rammed earth buildings constitute a large part of the housing stock in rural areas. Although these houses are recognized as a cultural heritage, detailed analyses of their architectural features, geometric parameters crucial for structural stability, and soil properties used for their construction have not yet been carried out in Croatia. The aim of this study is to collect basic data on the architectural features and material properties of rammed earth walls through field research in Croatia. These data are crucial for both numerical and experimental studies to improve the understanding of the structural behavior of rammed earth houses. Data were obtained through field research and a detailed survey of 22 houses. The houses were analyzed, samples of the rammed earth walls were collected, and their properties were tested in the laboratory. This study contributes to a better understanding of regional building practices and provides data that will enable us to identify the causes of damage in future studies and to select rehabilitation measures to preserve the authentic symbols of cultural heritage. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Earthen Architecture: Challenges and Opportunities for the 21st Century)
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18 pages, 6401 KiB  
Article
Improvement of Mechanical Properties of Compressed Earth Blocks with Stabilising Additives for Self-Build of Sustainable Housing
by Jorge López-Rebollo, Xavier Cárdenas-Haro, Juan Pablo Parra-Vargas, Kevin Narváez-Berrezueta and Julver Pino
Buildings 2024, 14(3), 664; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings14030664 - 1 Mar 2024
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2240
Abstract
Earth building technologies are increasingly being used to promote a natural and sustainable construction model and to empower self-building in resource-limited areas. This work focuses on investigating the use of different types of stabilising additives in compressed earth blocks (CEBs). To this end, [...] Read more.
Earth building technologies are increasingly being used to promote a natural and sustainable construction model and to empower self-building in resource-limited areas. This work focuses on investigating the use of different types of stabilising additives in compressed earth blocks (CEBs). To this end, empirical studies and laboratory analyses of earth samples taken from different sites in Ecuador were combined. Once the most suitable earth for use as a building material was determined, four types of CEBs were produced using equipment designed ad hoc to encourage self-building: earth-based, fibre additives, cementitious additives, and additives of other origin. The panels were characterised by means of compression tests to analyse their mechanical behaviour, obtaining the most promising results for the additivated samples with the highest percentage of cement and for the sample containing ground reeds, with a compressive strength of 3.3 MPa and 0.7 MPa, respectively. These samples were then subjected to more extensive tests using digital image correlation to analyse their full field strains and cracks, where the samples stabilised with cement showed a more homogeneous and consistent behaviour. Finally, an economic and comparative study with conventional construction systems was carried out to demonstrate the feasibility of using the proposed earth materials for cleaner and more economical buildings, mainly due to cost savings and lower pollution in terms of transport when using local resources. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Earthen Architecture: Challenges and Opportunities for the 21st Century)
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