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Current Status and Future Prospects of Hydrogen and Fuel Cell Technologies

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A special issue of Energies (ISSN 1996-1073). This special issue belongs to the section "A5: Hydrogen Energy".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (5 March 2026) | Viewed by 11521

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Special Issue Editors

Dr. Vânia B. Oliveira

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Guest Editor

Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Porto, 4200-465 Porto, Portugal
Interests: chemical and biological fuel cells, namely direct methanol and ethanol fuel cells; PEM fuel cells; microbial fuel cells and desalination fuel cells; mass transfer; mathematical modeling and electrochemical characterization techniques
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Prof. Dr. Alexandra M.F.R. Pinto

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Guest Editor

Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Porto, 4200-465 Porto, Portugal
Interests: PEM fuel cells; direct alcohol fuel cells; desalination fuel cells; microbial fuel cells; electrolyzers; hydrogen production and storage
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

The Future of Energy targets a smart and sustainable economy based on knowledge, innovation, and efficient use of resources, especially environmentally friendly ones. Innovation is considered the best tool to face the increasing global competition successfully, and open innovation among universities and industry will create new opportunities and technologies while providing a response to major social challenges. Among the different cutting-edge technologies that emerged in the last decade, Hydrogen and Fuel Cells are part of the portfolio of technologies identified in the Strategic Energy Technology Plan, which aims to accelerate the development of low-carbon technologies with expected contributions to a sustainable and secure energy supply system.

This Special Issue aims to present the most recent developments and future prospects for Hydrogen production and storage systems and Fuel Cell technology. Therefore, the topics of interest for publication include, but are not limited to:

PEM fuel cells;
Direct Alcohol Fuel Cells;
Direct Ammonia Fuel Cells;
Electrolysers;
Hydrogen Production;
Hydrogen Storage;
Safety Issues;
Life-cycle assessment;
Durability and lifetime;
Economic evaluation;
Modelling approaches;
Scale-up;
Novel applications.

Dr. Vânia B. Oliveira
Prof. Dr. Alexandra M.F.R. Pinto
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

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Keywords

fuel cells
hydrogen
design
modelling
control
new materials
diagnosis
safety

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Published Papers (5 papers)

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16 pages, 4853 KB

Open AccessArticle

Ni-Doped PPy/Chitosan Composite Coatings on Stainless Steel as Efficient Electrocatalysts for Hydrogen Evolution

by Sıla Melahat Yılmaz, Ceyda Dağcan and Aysel Kantürk Figen

Energies 2026, 19(7), 1749; https://doi.org/10.3390/en19071749 - 2 Apr 2026

Viewed by 502

Abstract

Developing efficient and durable electrocatalysts for the alkaline hydrogen evolution reaction (HER) remains challenging due to intrinsically sluggish reaction kinetics and the limited long-term stability of many non-noble metal catalysts under continuous operation. Herein, a nickel-doped polypyrrole/chitosan composite electrode on stainless steel (PPy/Chi/Ni) was fabricated via electrodeposition as a low-cost and scalable method. Benefiting from the combined effects of Ni incorporation and the conductive polymer–biopolymer composite framework, the optimized PPy/Chi/Ni electrode exhibits enhanced HER activity in alkaline environment, delivering a low overpotential of η₁₀ = 78 mV at a current density of 10 mA·cm⁻² and a reduced Tafel slope of 93 mV·dec⁻¹, indicative of accelerated reaction kinetics. Structural and morphological characterizations by XRD, FTIR, and FESEM indicate the formation of the composite structure. FESEM images suggest that the deposited layer forms a relatively uniform coating on the stainless steel substrate. EIS further reveals improved interfacial charge-transfer characteristics upon Ni doping. Additionally, long-term stability tests confirm the structural integrity of the composite electrode and its electrochemical stability under HER conditions by demonstrating stable HER performance for 15 h with only a 22 mV potential change at a constant current density. By providing a conductive interface and numerous catalytic sites, the Ni-doped electrocatalyst coating activates the stainless steel substrate, leading to a 79% reduction in overpotential compared to bare stainless steel and thereby significantly improving its HER performance. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Current Status and Future Prospects of Hydrogen and Fuel Cell Technologies)

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24 pages, 10263 KB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Non-Renewable and Renewable Exergy Costs of Water Electrolysis in Hydrogen Production

by Alessandro Lima, Jorge Torrubia, Alicia Valero and Antonio Valero

Energies 2025, 18(6), 1398; https://doi.org/10.3390/en18061398 - 12 Mar 2025

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 2590

Abstract

Hydrogen production via water electrolysis and renewable electricity is expected to play a pivotal role as an energy carrier in the energy transition. This fuel emerges as the most environmentally sustainable energy vector for non-electric applications and is devoid of CO₂ emissions. However, an electrolyzer’s infrastructure relies on scarce and energy-intensive metals such as platinum, palladium, iridium (PGM), silicon, rare earth elements, and silver. Under this context, this paper explores the exergy cost, i.e., the exergy destroyed to obtain one kW of hydrogen. We disaggregated it into non-renewable and renewable contributions to assess its renewability. We analyzed four types of electrolyzers, alkaline water electrolysis (AWE), proton exchange membrane (PEM), solid oxide electrolysis cells (SOEC), and anion exchange membrane (AEM), in several exergy cost electricity scenarios based on different technologies, namely hydro (HYD), wind (WIND), and solar photovoltaic (PV), as well as the different International Energy Agency projections up to 2050. Electricity sources account for the largest share of the exergy cost. Between 2025 and 2050, for each kW of hydrogen generated, between

1.38

and 1.22 kW will be required for the SOEC-hydro combination, while between

2.9

and 1.4 kW will be required for the PV-PEM combination. A Grassmann diagram describes how non-renewable and renewable exergy costs are split up between all processes. Although the hybridization between renewables and the electricity grid allows for stable hydrogen production, there are higher non-renewable exergy costs from fossil fuel contributions to the grid. This paper highlights the importance of non-renewable exergy cost in infrastructure, which is required for hydrogen production via electrolysis and the necessity for cleaner production methods and material recycling to increase the renewability of this crucial fuel in the energy transition. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Current Status and Future Prospects of Hydrogen and Fuel Cell Technologies)

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16 pages, 2921 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

The Effect of a Reduction in the Catalyst Loading on a Mini Passive Direct Methanol Fuel Cell

by C. S. Moreira, A. M. F. R. Pinto and V. B. Oliveira

Energies 2024, 17(20), 5174; https://doi.org/10.3390/en17205174 - 17 Oct 2024

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 1621

Abstract

Mini passive direct methanol fuel cells (mpDMFCs) appear to be a promising alternative for powering portable devices, since they use a liquid fuel, have a fast refuelling time, have a high efficiency and have a low environmental impact. However, some issues need to be solved before their commercialization, such as methanol crossover, short lifetime and high costs. The present work studies the effect of reducing the anode and cathode catalyst loading on the performance of a mpDMFC towards a reduction in the system costs and the characterization of the system losses. The undesirable losses that affect the fuel cell performance were identified and quantified using the electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) technique. Accordingly, a novel equivalent electric circuit (EEC) was proposed, accurately reproducing the mini pDMFC. In this work, a maximum power density of 7.07 mW cm⁻² was obtained, with a methanol concentration of 5 M, using 2 mg cm⁻² Pt-RuB and 4 mg cm⁻² PtB. The mpDMFC allowed the cell to work with high methanol concentrations and reduced anode catalyst loadings. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Current Status and Future Prospects of Hydrogen and Fuel Cell Technologies)

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15 pages, 3610 KB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Fuel Cell System Modeling Dedicated to Performance Estimation in the Automotive Context

by Antony Plait, Pierre Saenger and David Bouquain

Energies 2024, 17(15), 3850; https://doi.org/10.3390/en17153850 - 5 Aug 2024

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2714

Abstract

In this paper, a meticulous modeling approach is proposed not only for a fuel cell stack itself but also for all auxiliary components that collectively form the fuel cell system. This comprehensive modeling approach encompasses a wide range of components, including, but not limited to, the hydrogen recirculation pump and the air compressor. Each component is thoroughly analyzed and modeled based on the detailed specifications provided by suppliers. This involves considering factors such as efficiency, operating parameters, response times, and interactions with other system elements. By integrating these detailed models, a holistic understanding of the entire fuel cell system’s performance can be attained. Such an approach enables engineers and designers to simulate various operating scenarios, predict system behavior under different conditions, and optimize the system design for maximum efficiency and reliability. Moreover, it allows for informed decision-making throughout the system’s development, deployment, and operational phases, ultimately leading to more robust and effective energy systems. The model validation is performed by comparing experimental data to theoretical results, and the observed difference does not exceed 3%. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Current Status and Future Prospects of Hydrogen and Fuel Cell Technologies)

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18 pages, 8772 KB

Open AccessPerspective

Perspective on the Development and Integration of Hydrogen Sensors for Fuel Cell Control

by Michael Hauck, Christopher Bickmann, Annika Morgenstern, Nicolas Nagel, Christoph R. Meinecke, Alexander Schade, Rania Tafat, Lucas Viriato, Harald Kuhn, Georgeta Salvan, Daniel Schondelmaier, Tino Ullrich, Thomas von Unwerth and Stefan Streif

Energies 2024, 17(20), 5158; https://doi.org/10.3390/en17205158 - 16 Oct 2024

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2714

Abstract

The measurement of hydrogen concentration in fuel cell systems is an important prerequisite for the development of a control strategy to enhance system performance, reduce purge losses and minimize fuel cell aging effects. In this perspective paper, the working principles of hydrogen sensors are analyzed and their requirements for hydrogen control in fuel cell systems are critically discussed. The wide measurement range, absence of oxygen, high humidity and limited space turn out to be most limiting. A perspective on the development of hydrogen sensors based on palladium as a gas-sensitive metal and based on the organic magnetic field effect in organic light-emitting devices is presented. The design of a test chamber, where the sensor response can easily be analyzed under fuel cell-like conditions is proposed. This allows the generation of practical knowledge for further sensor development. The presented sensors could be integrated into the end plate to measure the hydrogen concentration at the anode in- and outlet. Further miniaturization is necessary to integrate them into the flow field of the fuel cell to avoid fuel starvation in each single cell. Compressed sensing methods are used for more efficient data analysis. By using a dynamical sensor model, control algorithms are applied with high frequency to control the hydrogen concentration, the purge process, and the recirculation pump. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Current Status and Future Prospects of Hydrogen and Fuel Cell Technologies)

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