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Safety of Hydrogen Energy: Technologies and Applications
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Safety of Hydrogen Energy: Technologies and Applications

A special issue of Energies (ISSN 1996-1073). This special issue belongs to the section "A5: Hydrogen Energy".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (6 March 2026) | Viewed by 7426

Special Issue Editors

Prof. Dr. Chilou Zhou

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Guest Editor
School of Mechanical and Automotive Engineering, South China University of Technology, Guangzhou 510641, China
Interests: hydrogen safety; hydrogen storage and transportation; hydrogen sealing technology; hydrogen damage; hydrogen compatibility of materials
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals
Dr. Xiang Li

E-Mail
Guest Editor
Key Laboratory of Safety of Hydrogen Energy Storage and Transportation Equipment for State Market Regulation, China Special Equipment Inspection and Research Institute, Beijing 100029, China
Interests: inspection & testing technology for hydrogen containers
Dr. Yang Du

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
College of Mechanical and Electronic Engineering, China University of Petroleum (East China), Qingdao 266580, China
Interests: hydrogen storage equipment and safety

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

As the globe strongly values hydrogen energy in decarbonization and in meeting zero-emission objectives, the industry is growing fast and the market is expanding. Meanwhile, scientists, engineers, and producers must recognize the crucial challenges in hydrogen energy use, such as the safety of hydrogen energy equipment, hydrogen storage containers, and pro-hydrogen materials. In recent years, explosions caused by hydrogen leakage in countries like South Korea, the U.S., Norway, and China have indicated that hydrogen safety is still a critical and common challenge. Therefore, conducting hydrogen safety research is urgent and necessary. By offering an open and professional communication platform, this Special Issue on hydrogen safety aims to promote the discussion and communication of the latest and forefront ideas, technological innovations, and forecasts in themes and areas related to hydrogen safety. It expects articles focusing on the following seven themes.

Topics of interest for publication include, but are not limited to, the following:

  1. Hydrogen leakage and fire explosion;
  2. Inspection and testing technology for hydrogen energy equipment;
  3. The hydrogen compatibility of materials;
  4. The safety of hydrogen storage cylinders;
  5. Sealing technology for hydrogen energy equipment;
  6. Hydrogen energy equipment design and manufacture;
  7. Hydrogen codes and standards.

Dr. Chilou Zhou
Dr. Xiang Li
Dr. Yang Du
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 250 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for assessment.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Energies is an international peer-reviewed open access semimonthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2600 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • hydrogen
  • safety
  • leakage
  • explosion
  • risk
  • hydrogen damage
  • hydrogen equipment

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Published Papers (4 papers)

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Research

23 pages, 1626 KB  
Article
Risk Assessment of an Off-Site Hydrogen Refueling Station: A Hybrid IEC 61511-CCPS LOPA Framework
by Yonggyu Kim, Shintak Han, Heewon Song and Seungho Jung
Energies 2025, 18(23), 6242; https://doi.org/10.3390/en18236242 - 27 Nov 2025
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1327
Abstract
Off-site hydrogen refueling stations (HRS) handle large volumes of high-pressure hydrogen, requiring precise and systematic risk-reduction strategies. In this study, a Hazard and Operability (HAZOP) analysis was performed for an off-site HRS, and Layer of Protection Analysis (LOPA) was conducted for four risk-level-4 [...] Read more.
Off-site hydrogen refueling stations (HRS) handle large volumes of high-pressure hydrogen, requiring precise and systematic risk-reduction strategies. In this study, a Hazard and Operability (HAZOP) analysis was performed for an off-site HRS, and Layer of Protection Analysis (LOPA) was conducted for four risk-level-4 events using two different approaches. The Functional Safety only LOPA, based on IEC 61511, and the All Safeguards LOPA, developed according to the Center for Chemical Process Safety (CCPS) guideline, were both applied. The Functional Safety only approach, which considers only automated protection layers, required Safety Integrity Level (SIL) ratings of 1 and 2, whereas the All Safeguards approach, accounting for mechanical and procedural protection layers, achieved the Target Mitigated Event Likelihood (TMEL) in all scenarios without additional SIL requirements. Consequently, it was confirmed that the definition of protection layer scope significantly influences the required SIL, design cost, and system complexity. This study proposes a hybrid approach in which all safeguards are considered during the early design stage, while in the final design stage, protection measures are evaluated from a functional safety perspective in accordance with IEC 61511 to ensure both design efficiency and safety integrity. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Safety of Hydrogen Energy: Technologies and Applications)
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14 pages, 1312 KB  
Article
Reliability, Maintenance, and Safety of Power-to-Hydrogen: Lessons Learned from an Industrial Demonstrator
by Florent Brissaud
Energies 2025, 18(23), 6184; https://doi.org/10.3390/en18236184 - 26 Nov 2025
Viewed by 1054
Abstract
Power-to-Gas is the process by which electrical energy is converted into chemical energy in gaseous form. It conventionally involves an electrolysis stage, producing hydrogen (Power-to-Hydrogen) from electricity and water. Because it relies on emerging technologies, the management of reliability, maintenance, and safety of [...] Read more.
Power-to-Gas is the process by which electrical energy is converted into chemical energy in gaseous form. It conventionally involves an electrolysis stage, producing hydrogen (Power-to-Hydrogen) from electricity and water. Because it relies on emerging technologies, the management of reliability, maintenance, and safety of these systems must address specific issues that are not yet well documented. Jupiter 1000 is an industrial demonstrator of Power-to-Gas, commissioned in 2019 by GRTgaz, which became NaTran in 2025. One of the objectives of the project is to demonstrate the feasibility of this type of process and to share initial feedback to support the development of the industrial Power-to-Gas sector. This paper presents the main lessons learned and results from Jupiter 1000 on reliability, maintenance, and safety for Power-to-Hydrogen installations. The experience gained from this demonstrator revealed that reliability is mainly affected by failures in systems such as compression, storage, and auxiliaries rather than in the electrolysers. Maintenance is challenged by limited availability of hydrogen-adapted equipment and skilled personnel, which can result in extended downtimes. Safety requires advanced leak detection, adapted materials, and comprehensive risk analyses, especially for hydrogen-specific hazards. These findings highlight five priorities for the sector: strengthening the industrial supply chain, improving equipment reliability, developing specialized risk management expertise, advancing safety solutions, and continuing R&D on hazardous phenomena and monitoring. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Safety of Hydrogen Energy: Technologies and Applications)
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19 pages, 8474 KB  
Article
Study on Ultrasonic Phased Array Inspection Method of Crack Defects in Butt Joints of Multi-Layered Steel Vessel for High-Pressure Hydrogen Storage
by Bo Deng, Zilong Wu, Rui Yan and Chilou Zhou
Energies 2025, 18(20), 5419; https://doi.org/10.3390/en18205419 - 14 Oct 2025
Viewed by 1068
Abstract
The full multilayer high-pressure hydrogen storage vessel plays an important role in hydrogen refueling stations. However, these vessels may fail after a certain period due to crack formation, necessitating periodic inspections. Among the various parts, the butt joints connecting the thick-walled nozzles and [...] Read more.
The full multilayer high-pressure hydrogen storage vessel plays an important role in hydrogen refueling stations. However, these vessels may fail after a certain period due to crack formation, necessitating periodic inspections. Among the various parts, the butt joints connecting the thick-walled nozzles and hemispherical heads represent critical and challenging areas for inspection. In this study, a one-shot multi-receiver defect detection and localization method is developed based on the ultrasonic phased array method. In order to verify the feasibility of the method, the interaction between the ultrasonic wave and the crack defects at the key position of the butt joint is analyzed based on finite element, enabling the accurate localization of crack tips; an experimental specimen was designed and fabricated, and a corresponding phased array detection test was conducted to validate the method. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Safety of Hydrogen Energy: Technologies and Applications)
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12 pages, 5447 KB  
Article
Quantitative Risk Assessment of Steam Reforming Process by Hydrogen Generator, Using PHAST Model
by Jongseok Lee, Hyunjun Kwak and Seungho Jung
Energies 2024, 17(22), 5704; https://doi.org/10.3390/en17225704 - 14 Nov 2024
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2970
Abstract
This study applied a risk assessment technique to the steam reforming process in hydrogen production facilities to generate baseline data for preparing safety protocols in related workplaces. To this end, consequence analysis (CA) was conducted using DNV-PHAST v.8.9., focusing on the reforming process, [...] Read more.
This study applied a risk assessment technique to the steam reforming process in hydrogen production facilities to generate baseline data for preparing safety protocols in related workplaces. To this end, consequence analysis (CA) was conducted using DNV-PHAST v.8.9., focusing on the reforming process, which operates at the highest temperature and pressure among related processes. This study predicted jet fire damage resulting from the total failure of a 65 mm syngas pipe at the rear end of the reformer, with a projected flame length of up to 23.6 m based on a radiant heat of 5 kW/m2. As per the assessment, a vapor cloud explosion (VCE) caused damage of up to 42.6 m at an overpressure of 0.07 bar (1 psi), while a flash fire had an impact range of approximately 12.7 m based on hydrogen’s LFL (lower flammable limit). This quantitative risk assessment of the general steam reforming process provides valuable basic data for the design and operation of related facilities. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Safety of Hydrogen Energy: Technologies and Applications)
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