Journal of Composites Science

Research

15 pages, 8597 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Electrochemical Jet Machining of Surface Texture: Improving the Strength of Hot-Pressure-Welded AA6061-CF/PA66 Joints

by Weidong Liu, Yan Luo, Yonghua Zhao, Haipeng Zhou, Sansan Ao and Yang Li

J. Compos. Sci. 2024, 8(7), 263; https://doi.org/10.3390/jcs8070263 - 7 Jul 2024

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Diverse industries are witnessing an increase in demand for hybrid structures of metals and carbon-fiber-reinforced thermoplastic composites (CFRTPs). Welding is an essential technique in the manufacture of metal–CFRTP hybrid structures. However, achieving high-strength metal–CFRTP welded joints faces serious challenges due to the considerable [...] Read more.

Diverse industries are witnessing an increase in demand for hybrid structures of metals and carbon-fiber-reinforced thermoplastic composites (CFRTPs). Welding is an essential technique in the manufacture of metal–CFRTP hybrid structures. However, achieving high-strength metal–CFRTP welded joints faces serious challenges due to the considerable disparities in material characteristics. As an effective method to strengthen metal–CFRTP joints, surface texturing on metal is gaining significant attention. This study introduces an emerging surface texturing approach, electrochemical jet machining (EJM) using a film electrolyte jet, for enhancing the performance of AA6061-CF/PA66 hot-pressure-welded (HPW) joints. Parametric effects on surface morphology and roughness in the EJM of AA6061 are investigated. The results show that a rough surface with multiscale pores can be generated on AA6061 by EJM, and that surface morphology can be modulated by adjusting the applied current density and jet translational speed. Subsequently, the effects of different EJM-textured surface morphologies on the performance of HPW joints are examined. Surface textures created by EJM are demonstrated to significantly enhance the mechanical interlocking effect at the bonding interface between AA6061 and CF/PA66, resulting in a substantial increase in joint strength. The maximum joint strength attained in the present work with EJM texturing is raised by 45.29% compared to the joints without surface texturing. Additionally, the joint strength slightly improves as the roughness of EJM-textured surfaces rises, with the exception of rough surfaces that are textured with a combination of low current density and rapid translational speed. Overall, these findings suggest that EJM texturing using a film jet prior to welding is a potential approach for the manufacture of high-performance metal–CFRTP hybrid structures. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Carbon Fiber Composites, Volume III)

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13 pages, 2054 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Finite Element Analysis Study of Influence of Femoral Stem Material in Stress Shielding in a Model of Uncemented Total Hip Arthroplasty: Ti-6Al-4V versus Carbon Fibre-Reinforced PEEK Composite

by Mario Ceddia, Giuseppe Solarino, Giorgio Giannini, Giuseppe De Giosa, Maria Tucci and Bartolomeo Trentadue

J. Compos. Sci. 2024, 8(7), 254; https://doi.org/10.3390/jcs8070254 - 2 Jul 2024

Viewed by 315

Abstract

Total hip arthroplasty is one of the most common and successful orthopaedic operations. Occasionally, periprosthetic osteolysis associated with stress shielding occurs, resulting in a reduction of bone density where the femur is not properly loaded and the formation of denser bone where stresses [...] Read more.

Total hip arthroplasty is one of the most common and successful orthopaedic operations. Occasionally, periprosthetic osteolysis associated with stress shielding occurs, resulting in a reduction of bone density where the femur is not properly loaded and the formation of denser bone where stresses are confined. To enhance proximal load transfer and reduce stress shielding, approaches, including decreasing the stiffness of femoral stems, such as carbon fibre-reinforced polymer composites (CFRPCs), have been explored through novel modular prostheses. The purpose of the present study was to analyse, by the finite element analysis (FEA) method, the effect that the variation of material for the distal part of the femoral stem has on stress transmission between a modulable prosthesis and the adjacent bone. Methods: Through three-dimensional modelling and the use of commercially available FEA software Ansys R2023, the mechanical behaviour of the distal part of the femoral stem made of CFRPC or Ti-6Al-4V was obtained. A load was applied to the head of the femoral stem that simulates a complete walking cycle. Results: The results showed that the use of a material with mechanical characteristics close to the bone, like CFRPC, allowed for optimisation of the transmitted loads, promoting a better distribution of stress from the proximal to the distal part of the femur. This observation was also found in some clinical studies in literature, which reported not only an improved load transfer with the use of CFRPC but also a higher cell attachment than Ti-6Al-4V. Conclusions: The use of a material that has mechanical properties that are close to bone promotes load transfer from the proximal to the distal area. In particular, the use of CFRPC allows the material to be designed based on the patient’s actual bone characteristics. This provides a customised design with a lower risk of prosthesis loss due to stress shielding. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Carbon Fiber Composites, Volume III)

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16 pages, 4325 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Processing and Mechanics of Aromatic Vitrimeric Composites at Elevated Temperatures and Healing Performance

by Tanaya Mandal, Unal Ozten, Louis Vaught, Jacob L. Meyer, Ahmad Amiri, Andreas Polycarpou and Mohammad Naraghi

J. Compos. Sci. 2024, 8(7), 252; https://doi.org/10.3390/jcs8070252 - 1 Jul 2024

Viewed by 401

Abstract

Carbon fiber reinforced polymer (CFRP) composites are renowned for their exceptional mechanical properties, with applications in industries such as automotive, aerospace, medical, civil, and beyond. Despite these merits, a significant challenge in CFRPs lies in their repairability and maintenance. This study, for the [...] Read more.

Carbon fiber reinforced polymer (CFRP) composites are renowned for their exceptional mechanical properties, with applications in industries such as automotive, aerospace, medical, civil, and beyond. Despite these merits, a significant challenge in CFRPs lies in their repairability and maintenance. This study, for the first time, delves into the processing and self-healing capability of aromatic thermosetting co-polyester vitrimer-based carbon fiber composites through mechanical testing. Vitrimers are an emerging class of thermosetting polymers, which, owing to their exchangeable covalent bonds, enable the re-formation of bonds across cracks. The specific vitrimer chosen for this study is an aromatic thermosetting co-polyester (ATSP). The mechanical properties of samples were analyzed initially through three-point bending (3PB) testing at room temperature before and after healing (by curing samples for 2 h at 280 °C). Samples were also 3PB tested at 100 °C to analyze their mechanical properties at an elevated temperature for comparison to the samples tested at room temperature. To investigate the fracture properties, optical microscopy images of samples were taken after 3PB tests, which were analyzed to observe crack initiation and crack growth behavior. Through load–displacement curves from double cantilever beam (DCB) mechanical testing, the Mode I crack initiation fracture toughness values of self-healed composites and control composites were calculated to evaluate healing efficiency in ATSP CFRP composites cured at 280 °C for 2 h. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) showed a similar surface morphology of cracks before and after self-healing. Micro-computed tomography (CT) X-ray imaging confirmed that the healed samples closely resembled the as-fabricated ones, with the exception of some manufacturing voids, caused by outgassing in the initial healing cycle. This research demonstrated the ability for the in situ repair of ATSP CFRPs by restoring the fracture toughness to values comparable to the pristine composite (~289 J/m²). Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Carbon Fiber Composites, Volume III)

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17 pages, 9700 KiB

Open AccessArticle

An Experimental Study Incorporating Carbon Fiber Composite Bars and Wraps for Concrete Performance and Failure Insight

by Ali Akbarpour, Jeffery Volz and Shreya Vemuganti

J. Compos. Sci. 2024, 8(5), 174; https://doi.org/10.3390/jcs8050174 - 9 May 2024

Viewed by 726

Abstract

Corrosion of conventional steel reinforcement is responsible for numerous structurally deficient bridges, which is a multi-billion-dollar challenge that creates a vicious cycle of maintenance, repair, and replacement of infrastructure. Repair of existing structures with fiber-reinforced polymer (FRP) has become widespread due to multiple [...] Read more.

Corrosion of conventional steel reinforcement is responsible for numerous structurally deficient bridges, which is a multi-billion-dollar challenge that creates a vicious cycle of maintenance, repair, and replacement of infrastructure. Repair of existing structures with fiber-reinforced polymer (FRP) has become widespread due to multiple advantages. Carbon FRP’s superior tensile strength and stiffness make it particularly effective in shear and flexural strengthening of reinforced concrete (RC) beams. This experimental study incorporates carbon fiber polymer composite bars and wraps to study and report on the flexural behavior of RC beams. By employing a combination of CFRP bar and wrap for strengthening RC beams, this study observed an approximate 95% improvement in flexural load capacity relative to control RC beams without strengthening. This substantial enhancement highlights the effectiveness of integrating CFRP in structural applications. Nevertheless, the key observation is the failure mode due to this combination providing significant insights into the changes facilitated by this combination approach. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Carbon Fiber Composites, Volume III)

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16 pages, 7182 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effect of Chitin Nanocrystal Deacetylation on a Nature-Mimicking Interface in Carbon Fiber Composites

by Abdellatif M. Abdel-Mohsen, Rasha M. Abdel-Rahman, Lukáš Kalina, Vishakha Vishakha, Ludmila Kaprálková, Pavel Němeček, Josef Jančář and Ivan Kelnar

J. Compos. Sci. 2024, 8(5), 163; https://doi.org/10.3390/jcs8050163 - 26 Apr 2024

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Abstract

The formation of a rigid, tough interface based on a nacre-like structure in carbon fiber (CF) composites is a promising way to eliminate low delamination resistance. An effective method of coating CFs is electrophoretic deposition (EPD), which, in the case of dissimilar components [...] Read more.

The formation of a rigid, tough interface based on a nacre-like structure in carbon fiber (CF) composites is a promising way to eliminate low delamination resistance. An effective method of coating CFs is electrophoretic deposition (EPD), which, in the case of dissimilar components like graphene oxide (GO) and polymeric glue, usually requires chemical bonding/strong interactions. In this work, we focus on chitin nanocrystals (ChNCs), leading to an excellent mechanical performance of artificial nacre, where favorable interactions and bonding with GO are controlled by degrees of deacetylation (5, 15, and 30%). We prepared coatings based on GO/ChNC adducts with 95/5, 90/10, 50/50, and 25/75 ratios using optimized EPD conditions (pH, concentration, voltage, and time). The prepared materials were characterized using FTIR, TEM, XPS, SEM, DLS, and XRD. SEM evaluation indicates the formation of a homogeneous interlayer, which has a fair potential for chemical bonding with the epoxy matrix. Short-beam testing of epoxy matrix composites indicates that the coating does not decrease stiffness and has a relatively low dependence on composition. Therefore, all coatings are promising for a detailed study of delamination resistance using laminate samples. Moreover, facile EPD from the water solution/suspension has a fair potential for industrial applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Carbon Fiber Composites, Volume III)

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14 pages, 10308 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Determination of the In-Plane Shear Behavior of and Process Influence on Uncured Unidirectional CF/Epoxy Prepreg Using Digital Image Correlation Analysis

by Hongfu Li, Haoxuan Zhang, Guangquan Yue, Boyu Guo and Ying Wu

J. Compos. Sci. 2024, 8(4), 133; https://doi.org/10.3390/jcs8040133 - 5 Apr 2024

Viewed by 842

Abstract

The investigation of the in-plane shear behavior of prepreg is crucial for understanding the generation of wrinkles of preforms in advanced composite manufacturing processes, such as automated fiber placement and thermoforming. Despite this significance, there is currently no standardized test method for characterizing [...] Read more.

The investigation of the in-plane shear behavior of prepreg is crucial for understanding the generation of wrinkles of preforms in advanced composite manufacturing processes, such as automated fiber placement and thermoforming. Despite this significance, there is currently no standardized test method for characterizing uncured unidirectional (UD) prepreg. This paper introduces a ±45° off-axis tensile test designed to assess the in-plane shear behavior of UD carbon fiber-reinforced epoxy prepreg (CF/epoxy). Digital image correlation (DIC) was employed to quantitatively track the strains in three dimensions and the shear angle evolution during the stretching process. The influences of the temperature and stretching rate on the in-plane shear behavior of the prepreg were further investigated. The results reveal that four shear characteristic zones and wrinkling behaviors are clearly distinguished. The actual in-plane shear angle is significantly lower than the theoretical value due to fiber constraints from both the in-plane and out-of-plane aspects. When the off-axis tensile displacement (d) is less than 15.6 mm, the ±45° specimens primarily exhibit macroscale in-plane shear behavior, induced by interlaminar interface shear between the +45° ply and −45° ply at the mesoscale. The shear angle increases linearly with the d. However, when d > 15.6 mm, fiber squeezing and wrinkling begin to occur. When d > 29 mm, the in-plane shear disappears in the completely sheared zone (A). The reduction in the resin viscosity of the CF/epoxy prepreg caused by increased temperature is identified as the primary factor in lowering the in-plane shear force resistance, followed by the effect of the increasing resin curing degree. Higher shear rates can lead to a substantial increase in shear forces, eventually causing cracking failure in the prepreg. The findings demonstrate the feasibility of the test method for predicting and extracting uncured prepreg in-plane shear behaviors and the strain-rate and temperature dependency of the material response. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Carbon Fiber Composites, Volume III)

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13 pages, 3938 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Surface Quality Related to Face Milling Parameters in 3D Printed Carbon Fiber-Reinforced PETG

by Mohamad El Mehtedi, Pasquale Buonadonna, Gabriela Loi, Rayane El Mohtadi, Mauro Carta and Francesco Aymerich

J. Compos. Sci. 2024, 8(4), 128; https://doi.org/10.3390/jcs8040128 - 29 Mar 2024

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 923

Abstract

Three-dimensional printing technology holds significant potential for enhancing the flexibility and cost-efficiency of producing carbon fiber-reinforced polymer composites (CFRPs). However, it faces limitations such as challenges in achieving high surface qualityand precise dimensional accuracy and managing the distinctive anisotropic mechanical properties that it [...] Read more.

Three-dimensional printing technology holds significant potential for enhancing the flexibility and cost-efficiency of producing carbon fiber-reinforced polymer composites (CFRPs). However, it faces limitations such as challenges in achieving high surface qualityand precise dimensional accuracy and managing the distinctive anisotropic mechanical properties that it demonstrates. This study aims to explore the machinability of 3D printed PETG infused with 20% short carbon fiber and to assess the resulting surface roughness and burr formation. Employing a Design of Experiments (DoE) approach, three factors were considered: rotational speed, feed rate, and depth of cut. These factors were tested at varying levels—rotational speeds of 3000, 5500, and 8000 rpm; feed rates of 400, 600, and 800 mm/min; and depth of cut values of 0.2, 0.4, 0.6, and 0.8 mm. The evaluation of machinability relied on two key response parameters: surface roughness (Sa) determined from the milled surface and burr height measured on both sides using a roughness meter. The findings revealed a significant influence of milling parameters on both roughness and burr formation. However, the ideal conditions for minimizing roughness and reducing burr formation did not align. Furthermore, a comparative analysis was conducted between these results and the machinability of PETG under similar conditions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Carbon Fiber Composites, Volume III)

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14 pages, 4887 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Innovative Wedge Anchorage for CFRP Plates: Development and Testing

by Mustafa Alhusain and Adil Al-Mayah

J. Compos. Sci. 2024, 8(3), 103; https://doi.org/10.3390/jcs8030103 - 14 Mar 2024

Viewed by 1135

Abstract

Gripping prestressed carbon fiber-reinforced polymers (CFRPs) in structural strengthening applications is challenging due to CFRPs’ susceptibility to lateral loading. This paper presents a reliable and reusable wedge anchorage for gripping CFRP plates that are 50 mm wide and 1.2 mm thick. The cylindrical [...] Read more.

Gripping prestressed carbon fiber-reinforced polymers (CFRPs) in structural strengthening applications is challenging due to CFRPs’ susceptibility to lateral loading. This paper presents a reliable and reusable wedge anchorage for gripping CFRP plates that are 50 mm wide and 1.2 mm thick. The cylindrical anchorage, which is 75 mm long and 76.2 mm in diameter, consists of an external steel barrel, two internal steel wedges, and two soft copper sleeves. The barrel-wedge interface is designed using an innovative arc–linear configuration, through which the desired stress distribution is attained, preventing stress concentration and the premature failure of the CFRP plate. The wedge anchorage was experimentally tested by applying a displacement-controlled tensile load of 0.6 mm/min until the complete fracture of the CFRP plate. The anchorage’s performance was examined under distinct installation conditions by applying different presetting levels: high (40–120 kN) and low (hammering) presetting. It was observed that the anchorage successfully prevented CFRP premature failure in all tests by achieving an average tensile loading of 172.3 (±5.7) kN, exceeding its reported tensile strength of 168 kN (2800 MPa). Minor CFRP displacements of 6.26 (±0.75) mm and 3.33 (±0.16) mm were recorded under low and high presetting levels, respectively. Similarly, the CFRP slippage relative to the wedges for the low and high presetting tests was only 1.18 (±0.75) mm and 0.33 (±0.15) mm, respectively. Also, only minor scratches were observed in the wedge–barrel interface, indicating the absence of extensive plastic deformation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Carbon Fiber Composites, Volume III)

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23 pages, 12050 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Stiffness Retention in Cyclic-Loaded CFRP Composites Produced via Novel Automatic Tape Laying

by Ashley Blythe, Bronwyn Fox, Mostafa Nikzad, Boris Eisenbart and Boon Xian Chai

J. Compos. Sci. 2024, 8(3), 92; https://doi.org/10.3390/jcs8030092 - 3 Mar 2024

Viewed by 1061

Abstract

Sixteen-head automatic tape laying of non-crimped carbon-fibre-reinforced plastic is performed, and the fibre alignment is compared with that produced via hand laying. The effect of fibre alignment is tested via quasi-static and cyclic three-point bending tests. Using the Fill Multilayer (a 16-head tape-laying [...] Read more.

Sixteen-head automatic tape laying of non-crimped carbon-fibre-reinforced plastic is performed, and the fibre alignment is compared with that produced via hand laying. The effect of fibre alignment is tested via quasi-static and cyclic three-point bending tests. Using the Fill Multilayer (a 16-head tape-laying machine), precision fibre laying of unidirectional fabrics is performed with deliberate misalignment to examine the effect of fibre orientation and investigate the random effect on longitudinal misalignment. The automatic tape-layered coupons are compared with hand-layered carbon fibre tapes to investigate the relationship between the fibre alignment and the flexural strength. A 52% reduction in the fibre alignment scatter is achieved via the Fill Multilayer. Fibre orientation increases lead to a higher flexural strength of 16.08% for Fill Multilayer-made coupons compared with hand-layered samples. An investigation of the correlation between fibre alignment and flexural strength shows that shear-based failure increases exponentially as the alignment decreases. Fill Multilayer-made coupons have a higher void concentration due to ultrasonic welding, but also the highest modulus and flexural strength, as fibre misalignment is reduced to 1.68°, with a modulus degradation of 1.4%. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Carbon Fiber Composites, Volume III)

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15 pages, 12447 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Damage Model of Carbon-Fiber-Reinforced Concrete Based on Energy Conversion Principle

by Ruiqi Zheng, Jianyong Pang, Jian Sun, Yongqiang Su and Guoping Xu

J. Compos. Sci. 2024, 8(2), 71; https://doi.org/10.3390/jcs8020071 - 10 Feb 2024

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1244

Abstract

In order to enhance the practical application of carbon-fiber-reinforced concrete (CFRC) in engineering, it is necessary to study the damage mechanism of CFRC. Experimental research on the mechanical properties of CFRC under multiple strain rates was conducted. Five different fiber contents were analyzed [...] Read more.

In order to enhance the practical application of carbon-fiber-reinforced concrete (CFRC) in engineering, it is necessary to study the damage mechanism of CFRC. Experimental research on the mechanical properties of CFRC under multiple strain rates was conducted. Five different fiber contents were analyzed to study the compressive strength and tensile strength of CFRC, and the damage characteristics of CFRC under multiple strain rates were analyzed based on failure modes and energy changes. An energy-based damage constitutive model was established. The results showed the following: (1) When the carbon fiber content was 0.4%, CFRC had the best comprehensive performance, with a 15.02% increase in compressive strength and a 51.12% increase in tensile strength. With the increase in strain rate, the compressive strength of the concrete increased. (2) Under high strain rates, carbon fiber significantly enhanced the compressive strength of the concrete, and the input energy, elastic strain energy, and dissipated energy increased. The peak value of the elastic strain energy conversion rate increased, and the minimum value of the dissipated energy conversion rate decreased. (3) Under the same strain rate, the CFRC had a larger inflection point of dissipated energy corresponding to the strain compared to the reference group of concrete during the loading process. A constitutive model for CFRC was established based on damage mechanics and probability statistics. The research results will provide theoretical references for the application of carbon-fiber-reinforced concrete. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Carbon Fiber Composites, Volume III)

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16 pages, 7169 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effects of the Injection Material and Resin Layer on the Mechanical Properties of Carbon Fiber-Reinforced Thermoplastic (CFRTP) Press and Injection Hybrid Molded Parts

by Kazuto Tanaka and Masaki Taniguchi

J. Compos. Sci. 2024, 8(2), 56; https://doi.org/10.3390/jcs8020056 - 1 Feb 2024

Viewed by 1462

Abstract

In the press and injection hybrid molded parts of fiber-reinforced thermoplastics (FRTPs), failure at the interface between the surface material (the outer shell) and the ribs (the injection part) or that at the injection part has become an issue. Adding a resin layer [...] Read more.

In the press and injection hybrid molded parts of fiber-reinforced thermoplastics (FRTPs), failure at the interface between the surface material (the outer shell) and the ribs (the injection part) or that at the injection part has become an issue. Adding a resin layer to the rib roots at the same time that the ribs are molded through injection has been proposed, which may increase the mechanical properties and reduce the material cost. To prevent failure at the injection part, the use of fiber-reinforced resin as an injection material has been suggested. This approach contributes to a higher bond strength by lowering the molding shrinkage rate. In this study, the hat-shaped parts of carbon fiber-reinforced thermoplastics (CFRTPs) with fiber-reinforced and neat resin layers at the rib root were fabricated through press and injection hybrid molding, and their mechanical properties were evaluated through three-point bending tests. The effects of the resin layer at the rib root and the existence or nonexistence of fiber reinforcement on the mechanical properties, as well as the relationship between the material cost and the mechanical properties, were clarified through an experiment and FEM analysis. The bond strength was also evaluated through tensile tests that were undertaken at the rib root. Molded parts with neat PA6 and glass fiber-reinforced PA6 resin layers at the rib roots showed higher bond strength than those without resin layers. In a three-point bending test of a CFRTP hat-shaped part with a resin layer at the rib roots, the use of a 1 mm thick CFRTP laminate for the outer shell and glass fiber-reinforced PA6 resin as the injection material showed the same stiffness as a part that used a 2 mm thick CFRTP laminate for the outer shell. FEM analysis showed that the resin layer prevented the concentration of strain at the rib roots, and the model that used a 1 mm thick CFRTP laminate for the outer shell and glass fiber-reinforced PA6 resin as the injection material showed the best specific stiffness in this study. By adding a resin layer to the rib roots, the fabrication of molded parts with excellent specific stiffness was enabled at a small increase in cost. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Carbon Fiber Composites, Volume III)

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10 pages, 1853 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Buckling Analysis for Carbon and Glass Fibre Reinforced Hybrid Composite Stiffened Panels

by Haoting Han and Chensong Dong

J. Compos. Sci. 2024, 8(1), 34; https://doi.org/10.3390/jcs8010034 - 18 Jan 2024

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Abstract

Composite laminated structural panels are widely used in various industries such as aerospace and machinery because of their light weight, large specific stiffness, and strong fatigue resistance. As a typical engineering structure, the composite stiffened plate is designed to enhance the bearing capacity [...] Read more.

Composite laminated structural panels are widely used in various industries such as aerospace and machinery because of their light weight, large specific stiffness, and strong fatigue resistance. As a typical engineering structure, the composite stiffened plate is designed to enhance the bearing capacity of the laminated plate. In this study, composite stiffened panels reinforced by carbon and/or E-glass fibres are modelled by finite element analysis (FEA) using Ansys. Nonlinear structural analysis is employed to find the critical buckling load. Three different skin layups, i.e., [45°/−45°/90°/0°]_S, [90°/0°/90°/0°]_S, and [60°/−30°/90°/0°]_S, are studied. For each ply angle combination, different ply material combinations are studied. The cost and weight of each combination formed by applying different ply materials to the skin and stiffeners are studied. The results show that hybrid reinforcement in the stiffened panels reduces costs and maintains high buckling loads. Carbon/epoxy composites as the outer layers also reduce costs and maintain acceptable buckling loads without compromising the overall performance. Customized composite designs in terms of cost and weight can be achieved while maintaining critical buckling loads. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Carbon Fiber Composites, Volume III)

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